Unpublished letters to the
Electrotherapy Museum
The following letters were never meant to be published. There is some moral divide
in such a situation as to what to do with correspondences of friends that have
moved on. Oftentimes in cases where passions run high on various subjects, harsh
words can be said criticizing fellow members of the field of research. It is not the
intention of these letters to put anyone in a bad light. We are all, as it were, part of
this history. We all tried our best to collaborate with each other as sincerely as
possible, even during times when our lives were falling apart or even out from under
us. These correspondences are simply fragments of conversations that still remain.
When most of my treasured colleagues moved on, their belongings and letters were
dispersed, many of which were disposed of. (This includes letters within the Tesla
family.) Words can never express the frustration I feel for such unfortunate
situations. I have endless respect for each one of these people. I was privileged to
call them my colleagues. I was privileged to call them my friends. And we were, as
a team, a small number of historians defending the truth, solving mysteries
together, saving history at any cost, and doing our best to discourage the myths and
pseudoscience that prevailed time and time again against everything we believed
in. What can I say? Fiction sells. And yet sadly, Nikola Tesla was one man in history
whose story needed no embellishments.
I miss you guys.
Jeff Behary 08. November 2019
DUCKS
UNLIMITED
Betty C. Lientz
697 Sapphire Ave.
Ventura, CA 93004-4019
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Betty C. Lientz
697 Sapphire Avenue
Ventura, California 93004
(805) 647-3165
April 10, 2004
Bill Wysock
2527 Treelane Avenue
Monrovia, California 91016
Dear Bill:
I am so glad Jim Hardesty suggested that I call regarding my limited knowledge about Frederick
Finch Strong, M.D. He sent me the book “High-Frequency Currents” by Dr. Strong. Actually, I
had no idea that Dr. Strong’s early efforts included this endeavor so I was totally surprised.
As you can see from the enclosed correspondence, the Lientz Family became acquainted with Dr.
Strong through Earl Hill Wilson and Refined Sulphur, which was used in treating his injury from
Roentgen x-ray. Actually, my only familiarity with Dr. Strong was through Refined Sulphur.
I have no idea when he died but I am much younger than he. I am 81 years old. The story as to
how the Lientz Family became associated with Earl revolves around Refined Sulphur and an
injury to my left eye on July 15, 1935. The story is long so I do not want to burden you with it,
unless you would like it just for background information. Refined Sulphur in the form developed
by Earl has the ability of helping the body heal itself of many diverse diseases and do it safely.
It would be interesting to learn of your work at the Griffith Park Observatory and of the person
about whom you spoke during our conversation. If I recall correctly that person has background
in the medical field.
Verv cordially yours
BCL:lb
Enc.
Ian Macdonald, M. D.
£007 WILSH1RE BOULEVARD
LOS ANGELES 5, CALIFORNIA
Fairfax 2211
December 14, 1943.
Dr. Ralph R. Mellon
6055 Bunker Hill Street
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Dear Doctor Mellon;
It has been suggested that I outline
for you some personal experiences I have had with
the clinical use of hydrosulphosol preparations.
My experience with this agent has been limited to
its use in two conditions; the treatment of late
sequelae in damage to the skin from irradiation,
and in the management of post-operative cases in
which the actual cautery has been used for cancer.
Both of these conditions may be regarded as ’burns
An example of the first condition
mentioned, of extraordinary Interest, was provided
by a patient suffering from extensive, intractable
ulceration involving about one-third of a leg with
exposure of the tendo Achilles in its base, and in
which amputation was being considered. The use of
hydrosulphosol saw the first improvement after
months of other treatment, the area became entirely
healed and has remained so for over a year. I have
already provided you with microscopic sections from
this patient.
The use of hydrosulphosol solution
and ointment in post-cautery wounds seems to hasten
the separation of sloughing tissue, with more
rapid establishment of healthy granulation tissue
and diminution of the exudative process. I am
unable to offer any opinion as to whether the time
required for complete healing is decreased.
With best regards.
Ian Macdonald, M.D.
incerely yours.
IM :m
CHARLES W. HYDE, M.D.
1801 Eye Street, N.W,
Washington, 6, D. C,
March 31, 1947
Dr a Archie Edward Cruthirds,
Phoenix, Arizona
Dear Doctor Cruthirds!
On February 11 you were kind enough to write me at length and advise
how best I could use Hydrosulphosol in the treatment of X-ray burns
on my hands. These burns were received about twenty years ago as
the result of X-ray therapy for ringworm. I had one small graft
six years ago which was successful; another a year ago in the same
place which was unsuccessful. Healing failed to take place, the
area spread and a diagnodis of secondary epithelioma was made, and
I lost three fingers on ray right hand. The skin on both my hands had
Steadily grown worse so that I had an ulcer on the remaining finger
of the right hand and five on the fingers and palm of the left hand
varying from the size of a dime to the size of a pea.
After receiving your letter I was greatly encouraged and followed
your suggestions. After reading your first article I started using
the ointment, which I thought was somewhat irritating. After your
letter I began treatment with warm soaks, usually of about twenty
minutes* duration and 1-40 strength, four times a day. Also, I applied
the ointment over night with a retention bandage. During all this
time I was able to do a certain amount of work. I also took about
twelve minims of the solution four times daily.
At this time the ulcers are all entirely healed and the remaining
skin on my hands is in much better shape than before I began treatment.
I feel that this treatment has been so efficacious that with reason¬
able effort on my part I should have no further trouble,
I cannot tell you, of course, which treatment is the best to use,
but I do believe all three methods should be employed.
It is unnecessary for me to tell you, Dr, Cruthirds, of how much as¬
sistance you have been to me, and how very fine it was for you to take
so much time personally to assist me.
Assuring you of my great appreciation, and with best wishes, I remain,
Yours very sincerely.
Charles W, Hyde, M. D.
The Western Pennsylvania Hospital
INSTITUTE OF PATHOLOGY
PITTSBURGH, PENN’A
•sj?
April 17, 1944
Mr, Oliver K. Lientz
1006 West Sixth Street
Los Angeles, California
Dear Mr. Lientz:
In response to your letter of March 31®t can say that I have clinical re¬
ports from several physicians who have used Hydrosulphosol on burn cases.
Abstracts and summaries from these follow.
The most complete are the reports of Dr. W. F. Pierce who has a series of
65 cases of which 44 were treated in the hospital and 21 were ambulatory.
Of the 44 hospitalized cases, 8 had burns of third degree, 19 had -both
third and second degree burns, and 7 had second degree burns.
Dr. Pierce states it as his opinion that there is a general balance in favor
of the cases treated by Hydrosulphosol as against another series of cases
in which other methods were employed. More specifically, he notes an absence
of evidence of clinical infection, with the exception of a single case. More¬
over, there is no indication of toxicity by Hydrosulphosol because its use
in "shock" cases requiring plasma had no restraining effect on the prompt re¬
sponse to this agent.
By way of support for the wound-healing possibilities of Hydrosulphosol, the
most suggestive is the very full report (including periodical biopsy slides)
of a case of delayed X-ray burn by Dr. Ian McDonald. Widespread ulceration
had finally supervened 15 years after low voltage X-ray treatments in a case
and had led to the development of multiple telangiectoses, extending on both
sides from Poupart's ligament to the heels. The biopsy showed the character¬
istic lesions of the X-ray, both in the obliterative endarteritis in the floor
of the ulcer and the pre-cancerous changes in the epithelium.
The fact that the largest ulcer whose area was 48 sq.cm., continued to spread
under a variety of accepted treatments whose duration covered more than a year}
and, that after three weeks of Hydrosulphosol one-half of its area became cov¬
ered with new epithelium and complete healing eventually took place, is ex¬
ceedingly suggestive. In addition, the lesion was badly infected with Staphy¬
lococcus aureus and B. pyocaneus.
The Western Pennsylvania Hospital
INSTITUTE OF PATHOLOGY
PITTSBURGH, PENN'A
Mr# Lientz
2
April 17, 1944
Reinforcing this unusual case were two others reported to me by Dr. Logan
Leven of the University of Minnesota Hospitals, 'i’hese were very extensive
third degree burns which failed to heal or to permit grafts to grow, due
to an infection with Staphylococcus aureus, which was resistant both to
penicillin and sulfathiazole. Both cases healed completely under treatment
with Hydrosulphosol.
That this effect resulted from stimulation of the tissues is suggested by
the fact that the action of Hydrosulphosol on Staphylococcus aureus in vitro
is much too weak to permit one to think that the primary action here was
bacteriostatic. It is noteworthy that Meleny, in his comprehensive report
of the influence of the sulfonamides against staphylococcus and pyocyaneus
infections showed these drugs to be unsatisfactory in combating them.
In addition I have summary reports of Dr. Kearney Sauer of Los Angeles and
of Dr. Lasley of Torrance, California. Dr. Sauer states that he treated a
number of cases with both the solution and ointment form of Hydrosulphosol.
He gives it as his opinion that the advantages are as follows: 1) Forms a
flexible coating over the lesion, which is not of a "tanning" nature, but
which is sufficiently flexible to permit motion of affected parts and thus
help to prevent contractures; 2) the period of granulation is shorter and
scarring is less.
Dr. Easley treated about 50 cases with Hydrosulphosol and gives his opinion
as follows: Quicker healing and less scarring occur and clinical infection,
when present, is cleared up. He noted particularly good results in flash
burns of the eyes, and on burns caused by acids. Virtually no scarring
occurred.
In my opinion these observations are sufficiently suggestive to justify the
critical study of larger numbers of infected cases with a view to seeing
whether such important studies as those reported to me by Dr. Logan Leven
can be confirmed.
Trusting that this is the type of information you desired, I am
Sincerely yours.
Ralph R. Mellon, M. D
SPECIAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE
SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF
STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTIONS
(Strep throat”)
COMMON "COLDS”
Influenza ("Flu”)
Sinus infections
Acne; Impetigo
bronchitis. Etc.
FREDERICK FINCH STRONG, M. D.
6129 Fountain Avenue
Hollywood. Calif.
OFFICE TREATMENT ONLY
FOR APPOINTMENTS PHONE
HI 8041
Phone between I and 3 P.M.
on Between 6 and 7 P.M,
April 22, 1946
Dr. A. E. Cruthirds:
Phoenix, Arizona.
My dear Doctor:
Learning of your successful work on ”X Ray Burns”
by the use of WILSONS HYDROSULPHOSOL, I am writing this letter
detailing my own experience in successfully treating myself of
a spreading Epithelioma of the left wrist, - a remote result of
cumulative X Ray exposures received nearly fifty years ago.
I have not had the pleasure of knowing you personally
so am enclosing copy of my Biography as you will find it in "WHO'S
WHO IN AMERICA”, and in "WHO'S WHO AMONG PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS” -
this will give you my medical and scientific background, and will
serve in lieu of an introduction.
While this letter is personal to you I hereby
authorize you to use it in any way you wish, as it contains facts
which should be known to the Medical Profession.
From my own experience I can emphatically corroborate
your successful use of WILSON'S HYDROSULPHOSOL in the cure of skin
lesions of a malignant or non-malignant nature caused by over¬
treatment by X R&y or Radium.
(Report by F.F.Strong,M.D.)
In the year 1900 I attended a meeting of the
A.M.A. at Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore-, where
I read a paper before the "ROEHTGEN SOCIETY OF AMERICA"
-which was then a department of the A.M.A. (let me say
parenthetically) that I was an active member of the A.M.A.
•from 1398 to 1922. : I dropped my membership at the latter time
expecting to devote myself to Lecture and Research work.
When I took my California license and began practice here
as a Physician and Surgeon, I did not resume my A.M.A.
membership (for purely personal reasons) I explain this
because I have been censured by A.M.A. members. For this
reason I had printed the WHO'S WHO data enclosed. I write
this in order that my right to speak as an authority on
Radiology be not questioned. Please pardon this necessary
explanation.
To return to my report-
At the Roentgen Soc. Meeting I was appalled
to see dozens of leading Radiologists with bandaged left
arms, - some with amputations at wrist or elbow, I found that
all these men had been In the habit of repeatedly holding
their -left hands between the Ray Tube and the Fluoroscope,
in order to allow patients and others to "see the bones” by
the -(then) - recently discovered Roentgen ”X Ray”.
Returning to Boston I began the construction of
my first Tesla-Higherequency Apparatus, intending it for
X Ray purposes, I soon found that, these currents p.osessed
remarkable vitalizing powers, and later published by book
’'HIGH-FREQUENCY CURRENTS" (Rebman Co.N.Y and London, 1908)
page 2,
Report (continued)
If you can find this book in any old medical library you
will find the subject of X Ray overexposure discussed in
detail.
While I suffered no ill effects from my own fluoroscopic
carelessness in the early days of my work with X Rays, I
have the best of reasons for knowing that the left hand and
wrist were permanently (as I thought) devitalized. The first
evidence of this was a Dupeytren's contraction of the left
palmar tendons, which began over ten years or more ago. This
was over thirty years since I stopped exposing my hand to
X Rays. About seven years ago the skin of the left wrist began
to break down and show evidence of X Ray- induced malignancy.
This slowly increased during the following year and only
began to heal after I begnji the use of HYDROSULPEOSOL locally
on the affected part, as well as in my bath water. After a few
months regenerative changes began and within six months the
lesions entirely disappeared and today the affected hand is
normal except the contracted pa3.mar tendons, and even these are
better (I do not believe the Dupeytrens contraction is due to
the X Ray, inasmuch as the right palmar tendons are still
slightly affected)
hands are otherwise normal: I can play the harp and
still make a fairly good Golf score.
As I believe my case report to be of great importance
I have been, prehaps, somewhat prolix in seemingly non-
essential details, but I have thought the latter necessary.
THE WHOLE PURPOSE OE THIS LETTER IS TO POINT OUT THE
REVITALIZATING POWER OP WILSON'S HYDROSULFHOSOL, ESPECIALLY
-IN CURE OP LESIONS OF THE SKIN RESULTING PROM OVERTREATMENT BY
X RAYS OR RADIUM. I PEEL THAT I OWE MY LIPS TO THE CURATIVE AND
VITALIZING POWER OF HYDROSULPHO SOL - THE.PRODUCT OF THE
RESEARCH AND DISCOVERY OP MY DEAR FRIEND
THE LATE MAJOR EARL HILL WILSON
SIGNED
UaA,
SPECIAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE
SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF
Streptococcus Infections
(Strep Throat")
Common "COLDS"
influenza ("Flu")
SINUS INFECTIONS
acne; impetigo
Bronchitis, etc.
FREDERICK FINCH STRONG, M. D.
6129 Fountain Avenue
Hollywood, Calif.
office treatment only
FOR APPOINTMENTS PHONE
HI 8041
Phone Between i and 3 P,M.
or between 6 and 7 P.M.
April 29, 1943
Ralph R. Mellon, M.D., Director,
Institute of Pathology,
The Western Pennsylvania Hospital
Pittsburgh, Penn’a.
»
Dear Dr* Mellont
Referring to the case of Mr. Fiske O’Hara who was a
patient of mine, I wish to advise that I treated Mr. O’Hara for
diabetic gangrene some three years ago. Mr. O’Hara, who is now
residing at 1326 north h a Brea Avenue, Hollywood, California, was
62 years of age when I treated him for the difficulty referred to.
When I first saw Mr. O’Hara his left foot ms badly
infected with diabetic gangrenous lesions that were exuding a blue-
black ichor. The discoloration extended upward to a point just above
the knee and the ankle and foot were considerably swollen, there ms
evidence of a similar condition developing in the right foot.
While I had been acquainted with Hydrosulphosol and
its action in certain other conditions, I had not previously used
this sulfhydryl solution in a situation as far advanced or as serious
as IS*.. 0’Hara’s case presented. But under the conditions and knowing
that Hydrosulphosol therapy was entirely safe 1 felt its trial to
be well indicated. The final results, I think, may be appraised
properly as most astounding.
The course of treatment followed by Mr. O’Hara con¬
sisted of the followingi Soaking the foot twice daily for 30 minutes
each time in approximately a 1:250 dilution of Hydrosulphosol in
warm water (30 go la 2 gallons). Between foot baths 2 to 3 wet
compresses, saturated with full strength Hydrosulphosol solution,
were applied on the Instep and sole of the foot dally.
After institution of Hydrosulphosol therapy no other
treatment was prescribed so that I feel safe in saying that the
results that followed can be clearly credited to this sulfhydryl
solution. Particularly does this appear justified when it is con¬
sidered that other treatment designed to alleviate the condition
had proven ineffective for a period of more than three months pre¬
ceding institution of Hydro sulphosol therapy. As a matter of fact
the condition of the leg had become steadily worse and Mr. O’Hara
was facing the possibility of having to undergo amputation.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE
SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF
Streptococcus Infections
" (Strep Throat”)
Common "colds”
INFLUENZA (“FLU”)
Sinus Infections
acne; Impetigo
bronchitis. Etc.
FREDERICK FINCH STRONG, M. D.
6129 Fountain Avenue
Hollywood, Calif.
OFFICE TREATMENT ONLY
FOR APPOINTMENTS PHONE
HI 8041
PHONE BETWEEN 1 AND 3 P.M.
or between 6 and 7 P.M.
Dr. ISelIon- Page #2-
The response to the foregoing uses of Hydrosulphoaol
became manifest unexpectedly in a matter of days, with a quick
decrease in pain and relief from uncomfortable restrictions imposed
by such a condition. One change noted very early was the disappear¬
ance of an odor that was objectionable, to say the least.
Within a matter of three weeks there was a marked
decrease in the swelling and the patient was able to begin to resume
normal activities. During the next few weeks the improvement was so
rapid that by the end of three months it could be said that the
entire trend had been reversed and healing was practically complete.
When Hydrosulphosol therapy was initiated there was a
discharge of blue-black ichor from four separate openings in the sole
of the left foot and a perforating type of ulcer on the top of the
foot posteriorly from approximately the middle toe. When healing
was complete all of these openings had filled in to a normal level
with no contracture and only mild scarring.
The comparatively minor condition noted in the right
foot yielded rather quickly to the same treatment with Hydrosulphosol
and Mr. O’Hara has continued to enjoy good health.
If you agree that the results observed in this case
deserve presentation, which certainly would concur with my opinion
and experience based on more than 40 years of active medical practice,
you may use the information contained in this letter in any way
you see fit.
I regret I cannot give you more detailed data but as
you have had opportunity to personally verify the facts from Mr.
O’Hara and examine the foot and leg in question, I feel you can
evaluate this case with full confidence as to its representing an
outstanding achievement in Medical Practice.
In closing I wish to express my pleasure in having
had the opportunity to study your published report on Hydrosulphosol.
Also I am happy to report this case to you, not only because of the
satisfactory outcome of such a case as Mr. O’Hara’s which previously
has always presented a discouraging prognosis but also because, in
my opinion, this product Is deserving of the widest possible adopt¬
ion by the Medical Profession.
Cordially yours.
T 1 % ,Z>
T.C.B.A.
JUNE 1985
PAGE 2
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• 1 L
PANEL PROCEEDINGS SERIES
RADIATION DAMAGE
AND SULPHYDRYL COMPOUNDS
PROCEEDINGS OF A PANEL
ON RADIATION DAMAGE TO THE BIOLOGICAL
MOLECULAR INFORMATION SYSTEM
WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO THE ROLE OF SH-GROUPS
ORGANIZED BY THE
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
AND HELD IN VIENNA,
21-25 OCTOBER 1968
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
VIENNA, 1969
FOREWORD
For a very long time it has been known that sulphydryl groups are an
important structural part of protein molecules and play a substantial role
in their functions. > With the recognition that the SH containing enzymes are
very sensitive to radiation and that the presence of cystein can prevent
radiation damage, the small molecule SH substances have become the most
promising source of radioprotective agents found over the last twenty years.
Much has been published on radioprotective agents despite their short
history. Almost all radiobiologists have done experimental work on radia¬
tion protection at some stage in their scientific careers, hopeful that it
might be possible to prevent the damaging effect of radiation on living beings
simply by administering a radioprotector. Many new protective compounds
were discovered, but as the ideal protector (high-protection, low-toxicity,
long period of effective protection, etc.) did not materialize, only a hard
core of researcher shave continued to concentrate on radioprotective drugs .
In the meantime a new field of life sciences, molecular biology, has
come to the fore, and substantial contributions have been made in' this
subject by radiobiologists. Remarkable progress has been made in our
understanding of such problems as the genetic role of deoxyribonucleic
acid, the transfer of information through the chain of ribonucleic acids to
proteins, and the regulation processes at the molecular level.
These achievements, together with the recent discoveries on the repair
and recovery of radiation damage to molecules and cells, offer new pers¬
pectives and concepts for the study of the mechanism of action of radio-
protective compounds. The radiation damage to the important biological
macromolecules and the mechanism of the radioprotective effect represent
fundamental problems in contemporary radiobiology. Their study can con¬
tribute to the better use of radiation in various practical applications, such
as the radiation treatment of tumours, and is of great importance to the
field of radiation health and safety.
In October 1968, the International Atomic Energy Agency convened a
panel on Radiation Damage to the Biological Molecular Information System
with Special Regard to the Role of SH Groups. The papers considered and
the conclusions arrived at by the Panel are presented in this volume.
CONCLUSIONS
The participants to the Panel felt that the scientific contribution of the
papers presented and the lively and valuable discussion which followed clearly
justified the holding of the Panel. The meeting provided a good opportunity
for participants to clarify the aims of their future work and provided many
stimulating ideas. J
The spectacular progress made in molecular biology in the last years
has provided a firm foundation for further research in radiation biology. The
new findings continue to emphasize the extremely important role of SH groups
in the function of biological macromolecules, and give some evidence for
their possible participation in the control and regulatory processes in the
living systems. SH and SS compounds represent one of the most important
classes of radioprotective agents so far discovered.
There are many mechanisms which could play a r6le in the protection of
the cell against radiation damage and, at the present time, none of these
mechanisms can with certainty be excluded as providing no contribution to
radioprotection. The situation is even more complicated in higher organisms,
involving as it does intracellular, hormonal and nervous interrelationships
Investigations into the mechanisms of protective action must be continued at
all levels, from the molecular to that of whole organisms. In particular,
detailed study is needed on the nature and intracellular level and localization
of the SH compounds before and at various times after administration of the
radioprotector. It also seems essential for research into chemical radio¬
protection to take advantage of the great progress made in understanding
the repair and recovery processes. Protection against low doses or continu¬
ous exposures to low levels of radiation needs further investigation.
n general the SH compounds used as radioprotectors in mammals are
of X n" + ° ^ greater ° r leSSer extent at the levels required to provide a measure
p otection. The Panel Members believe, however, that toxicity will not
it ml nU u t0 be limiting factor - Research on new compounds indicates that
ar^oJT P ° a prepare com P°™ds of lower toxicity; of special interest
protector° UndS WhlCh may be metaboliz ed in vivo to liberate the active
the ST* 1S n ° reason to believe that the compounds known at present are
chemi y -,° neS ° f lnterest - Recent observations show that new classes of
b e encour^ ^protectors may ^ and the search for new impounds should
only a ci ? e + d ’ M ° St ° f the radl °P rote ctors tested provide protection for
or chron, T' ^ th6Se are therefore of little use in cases of protracted
long- a p + , irradiatlon - Special efforts should be devoted to the search for
6 acting radioprotectors.
comb E inat rimental data haVe Sh ° Wn that mixtures of SH protectors and
sulphur-containing and non-sulphur-containing protective
' e le Ss tox Wlt + hdlfferent mechanisms of action are more effective, and may
■aderstandin* When ° n6 ° f the substances is given alone. A much better
ri ng-term g . ls needed on the use of such mixtures. Detailed studies of the
;nd other raH XlCOl0giCalj mutagenic and teratogenetic effects of SH compounds
aioprotectors in mammals should be undertaken
186
CONCLUSIONS
Generally speaking post-irradiation death of cells and animals has been
taken as the endpoint in most experiments on radioprotection. It is important
to study the protective action against other effects of irradiation in isolated
cells and in different cell populations within multicellular organisms.
There are good reasons for believing that normal tissues can be select¬
ively protected by SH compounds, using systemic administration of a radio-
protector in the radiotherapy of tumours. At present this principle canno
be put to the test because of the toxicity of the existing compounds. The
Panel Members feel, however, that the existing protectors can already
be used for local application in cases where localized protection of norm
tissue is useful during radiotherapy. . ,
As far as the protective action of SH and other compounds against the
late effects of radiation is concerned, present knowledge is still very spar .
There are some indications that SH compounds can decrease' * h “ adl | t “"
damage to embryos, and reduce post-irradiation vascular damage. Protec
ive substances have been reported to be largely ineffective m preventing
radiation-induced cataract and life-span shortening. The available data do
not permit of an evaluation as to whether treatment with protective agents
modifies the genetic and carcinogenic actions of ionizing radia ions
Sign An a plst‘achievements, as well as the hopes for future progress depend
heavily on basic work in molecular, cellular and animal biology an p lysio
^ It has become clear that topics which seemed very far removed from
fields of practical applications of nuclear energy areut i that
™ Agency should prolong and amplify its efforts
to further stimulate both basic and applied radiobiological resea •
Further study of radiation effects and radioprotection might stimulate
new work in the very important fields of biological dosimetry, an on 1
chemical and biological indicators of radiation damage.
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1. In view of the recent developments in the nuclear sciences, in their
practical applications and in the rapid increase in the uses of nuclear tech¬
nology, it was unanimously agreed that a renewed effort to stimulate
research in radiobiology is essential to ensure safe use of nuclear energy
with respect to man and other living organisms.
2. Basic information gained from studies of radiation protectors is as
important for health physics and radiotherapy as it is for radiobiology.
3. In this context (2), data on chemical protectors were reviewed and
their actions discussed for the various levels of organization and function
of living units:
(a) macromolecules (nucleic acids, proteins)
(b) viruses and micro-organisms
(c) cells
(d) whole organisms
4. Despite the many experiments, using various techniques, on many
living and non-living systems, no generalized statements on the modes of
action of radioprotectors can be made; several promising hypotheses
are currently being tested.
5; It is recommended that there should be an intensification of study on:
(a) The biochemical and pharmacological effects of radioprotectors
and radiosensitizers;
(b) The possibility of protecting mammals and men against the late
effects of ionizing radiation (carcinogenesis, fibrosis, genetic and
developmental disturbance);
(c) The influence of radioprotectors on the repair and recovery
mechanisms active in critical tissues like bone marrow, intestinal
epithelium, lymphoid organs, gonads, endocrine systems;
(d) The possibility, clearly indicated by recent observations, of
developing other types of sulphur-containing radioprotectors and
also non-sulphur-containing protectors;
(e) The usefulness of applying mixtures of radioprotectors.
6.- Progress in fundamental research and in the practical use of chemicals
which protect against or sensitize to ionizing radiation depends greatly on
better understanding of:
(a) The reactions of model and living systems to this radiation;
(b) The functional disturbances induced by them in multicellular
organisms.
’}• Information on the present state of knowledge of chemical radioprotection
has not been widely disseminated and, in particular, radiotherapists tend to
be unaware of the newer scientific developments in basic radiobiology and
c emical radioprotection. The Panel strongly recommends that the Agency,
lri co-operation with WHO. arm ndPfi P TBPPtincr Q+ larV) I oVi y»orli AllaAvinni n+n
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i
Betty C. Lientz
697 Sapphire Avenue
Ventura, California 93004
(805) 647-3165
April 10, 2004
Bill Wysock
2527 Treelane Avenue
Monrovia, California 91016
Dear Bill:
I am so glad Jim Hardesty suggested that I call regarding my limited knowledge about Frederick
Finch Strong, M.D. He sent me the book “High-Frequency Currents” by Dr. Strong. Actually, I
had no idea that Dr. Strong’s early efforts included this endeavor so I was totally surprised.
As you can see from the enclosed correspondence, the Lientz Family became acquainted with Dr.
Strong through Earl Hill Wilson and Refined Sulphur, which was used in treating his injury from
Roentgen x-ray. Actually, my only familiarity with Dr. Strong was through Refined Sulphur.
I have no idea when he died but I am much younger than he. I am 81 years old. The story as to
how the Lientz Family became associated with Earl revolves around Refined Sulphur and an
injury to my left eye on July 15, 1935. The story is long so I do not want to burden you with it,
unless you would like it just for background information. Refined Sulphur in the form developed
by Earl has the ability of helping the body heal itself of many diverse diseases and do it safely.
It would be interesting to learn of your work at the Griffith Park Observatory and of the person
about whom you spoke during our conversation. If I recall correctly that person has background
in the medical field.
Very cordially vours
BCL:lb
Enc.
Ian Macdonald, M. D.
2007 WIL5H1RE BOULEVARD
LOS ANGELES 5, CALIFORNIA
FAIRFAX 2211
December 14, 1945.
Dr. Ralph R. Mellon
6055 Bunker Hill Street
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Dear Doctor Mellon;
It has been suggested that I outline
for you some personal experiences I have had with
the clinical use of hydrosulphosol preparations.
My experience with this agent has been limited to
its use in two conditions; the treatment of late
sequelae in damage to the skin from irradiation,
and in the management of post-operative cases In
which the actual cautery has been used for cancer.
Both of these conditions may be regarded as 'burns
An example of the first condition
mentioned, of extraordinary Interest, was provided
by a patient suffering from extensive, intractable
ulceration involving about one-third of a leg with
exposure of the tendo Achilles in its base, and in
which amputation was being considered. The use of
hydrosulphosol saw the first Improvement after
months of other treatment, the,area became entirely
healed and has remained so for over a year. I have
already provided you with microscopic sections from
this patient.
The use of hydrosulphosol s.olutiQn
and ointment in post-cautery wounds seems to hasten
the separation of sloughing tissue, with more
rapid establishment of healthy granulation tissue
and diminution of the exudative process. I am
unable to offer any opinion as to whether the time
required for complete healing is decreased.
With best regards.
Ian Macdonald, M.D.
IM sm
CHARLES W. HYDE, M.D.
1801 Eye Street, N.W*
Washington, 6, D. C.
torch 31, 1947
Dr* Archie Edward Cruthirds,
Phoenix, Arizona
Dear Doctor Cruthirds*
On February 11 you were kind enough to write me at length and advise
how best I could use Hydrosulphosol in the treatment of X-ray burns
on my hands. These burns were received about twenty years ago as
the result of X-ray therapy for ringworm. I had one small graft
six years ago which was successful; another a year ago in the same
place which was unsuccessful. Healing failed to take place, the
area spread and a diagnosis of secondary epithelioma was made, and
I lost three fingers on ray right hand. The skin on both my hands had
Steadily grown worse so that I had an ulcer on the remaining finger
of the 'right hand and five on the fingers and palm of the left hand
varying from the size of a dime to the size of a pea.
After receiving your letter I was greatly encouraged and followed
your suggestions. After reading your first article I started using
the ointment, which I thought was somewhat irritating. After your
letter I began treatment with warm soaks, usually of about twenty
minutes* duration and 1-40 strength, four times a day. Also, I applied
the ointment over night with a retention bandage. During all this
time I was able to do a certain amount of work. I also took about
twelve minims of the solution four times daily.
At this time the ulcers are all entirely healed and the remaining
skin on ray hands is in much better shape than before I began treatment,
I feel that this treatment has been so efficacious that with reason¬
able effort on my part I should have no further trouble,
I cannot tell you, of course, which treatment is the best to use,
but I do believe all three methods should be employed.
It is unnecessary for me to tell you, Dr, Cruthirds, of how much as¬
sistance you have been to me, and how very fine it was for you to take
so much time personally to assist me.
Assuring you of my great appreciation, and with best wishes, I remain.
Yours very sincerely.
Charles W. Hyde, M, D»
The Western Pennsylvania Hospital
INSTITUTE OF PATHOLOQY
PITTSBURGH, PENN’A
April 17, 1944
Mr. Oliver K. Lientz
1006 West Sixth Street
Los Angeles, California
Dear Mr. Lientz:
In response to your letter of March Jilst can say that I have clinical re¬
ports from several physicians who have used Hydrosulphosol on burn cases.
Abstracts and summaries from these follow.
The most complete are the reports of Dr. W. F. Pierce who has a series of
65 cases of which 44 were treated in the hospital and 21 were ambulatory.
Of the 44 hospitalized cases, 8 had burns of third degree, 19 had both
third and second degree burns, and 7 bad second degree burns.
Dr. Pierce states it .as his opinion that there is a general balance in favor
of the cases treated by Hydrosulphosol as against another series of cases
in which other methods were employed. More specifically, he notes an absence
of evidence of clinical infection, with the exception of a single case. More¬
over, there is no indication of toxicity by Hydrosulphosol because its use
in “shock" cases requiring plasma had no restraining effect on the prompt re¬
sponse to this agent.
By way of support for the wound-healing possibilities of Hydrosulphosol, the
most suggestive is the very full report (including periodical biopsy slides)
of a case of delayed X-ray burn by Dr. Ian McDonald. Widespread ulceration
had finally supervened 15 years after low voltage X-ray treatments in a case
and had led to the development of multiple telangiectosea, extending on both
sides from Poupart's ligament to the heels. The biopsy showed the character¬
istic lesions of the X-ray, both in the obliterative endarteritis in the floor
of the ulcer and the pre-cancerous changes in the epithelium.
The fact that the largest ulcer whose area was 48 sq.cm., continued to spread
under a variety of accepted treatments whose duration covered more than a year}
and, that after three weeks of Hydro3ulphosol one-half of its area became cov¬
ered with new epithelium and complete healing eventually took place, is ex¬
ceedingly suggestive. In addition, the lesion was badly infected with Staphy¬
lococcus aureus and B. pyocaneus.
The Western Pennsylvania Hospital
INSTITUTE OF PATHOLOGY
PITTSBURGH, PENN’A
'ip
Mr. Lientz ........ 2
April 17, 1944
Reinforcing this unusual case were two others reported to me by Dr. Logan
Leven of the University of Minnesota Hospitals. These were very extensive
third degree burns which failed to heal or to permit grafts to grow, due
to an infection with Staphylococcus aureus, which was resistant both to
penicillin and sulfathiazole. Both cases healed completely under treatment
with Hydrosulphosol.
That this effect resulted from stimulation of the tissues is suggested by
the fact that the action of Hydrosulphosol on Staphylococcus aureus in vitro
is much too weak to permit one to think that the primary action here was
bacteriostatic. It is noteworthy that Meleny, in his comprehensive report
of the influence of the sulfonamides against staphylococcus and pyocyaneus
infections showed these drugs to be unsatisfactory in combating them.
In addition I have summary reports of Dr. Kearney Sauer of Los Angeles and
of Dr. Easley of Torrance, California. Dr. Sauer states that he treated a
number of cases with both the solution and ointment form of Hydrosulphosol.
He gives it as his opinion that the advantages are as follows: l) Forms a
flexible coating over the lesion, which is not of a "tanning" nature, but
which is sufficiently flexible to permit motion of affected parts and thus
help to prevent contracturesj 2) the period of granulation is shorter and
scarring is less.
Dr. Easley treated about 50 cases with Hydrosulphosol and gives his opinion
as follows: Quicker healing and less scarring occur and clinical infection,
when present, is cleared up. He noted particularly good results in flash
burns of the eyes, and on burns caused by acids. Virtually no scarring
occurred.
In my opinion these observations are sufficiently suggestive to justify the
critical study of larger numbers of infected cases with a view to seeing
whether such important studies as those reported to me by Dr. Logan Leven
can be confirmed.
Trusting that this is the type of information you desired, I am
Sincerely yoursj
Ralph R. Mellon, M. D.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE
SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF
Streptococcus Infections
•' (Strep Throat" >
common "colds"
Influenza ("Flu")
Sinus Infections
Acne; Impetioo
bronchitis. Etc.
FREDERICK FINCH STRONG, M. D.
6129 Fountain Avenue
Hollywood. Calif.
OFFICE TREATMENT ONLY
FOR APPOINTMENTS PHONE
HI 8041
Phone Between 1 and 3 P.M.
or Between 6 and 7 P.M.
April 22, 1946
Dr. A, E. Cruthirds:
Phoenix, Arizona.
My dear Doctor:
Learning of your successful work on "X Ray Burns”
by the use of WILSONS HYDROSULPHOSOL, I am writing this letter
detailing my own experience in successfully treating myself of
a spreading Epithelioma of the left wrist, - a remote result of
cumulative X Ray exposures received nearly fifty years ago.
I have not had the pleasure of knowing you personally
so am enclosing copy of my Biography as you will find, it in ’’WHO’S
WHO IN AMERICA”, and in "WHO’S WHO AMONG PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS” -
this will give you my medical and scientific background, and will
serve in lieu of an introduction.
While this letter is personal to you I hereby
authorize you to use it in any way you wish, as it contains facts
which should be known to the Medical Profession.
From my own experience I can emphatically corroborate
your successful use of WILSON’S HYDROSTJLPHOSOL in the cure of skin
lesions of a malignant or non-malignant nature caused by over-
treatment by X R&y or Radium.
(Report by F,F.Strong,M.D.)
In the year 1900 I attended a meeting of the
A.M.A, at Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore-, where
I read a paper before the "ROENTGEN SOCIETY OF AMERICA”
-which was then a department of the A.M.A. (let me say
parenthetically) that I was an active member of the A.M.A.
-from I 898 to 1922. : I dropped my membership at the latter time
expecting to devote myself to Lecture and Research work.
When I took my California license and began practice here
as a Physician and Surgeon, I did not resume my A.M.A.
membership (for purely personal reasons) I explain this
because I have been censured by A.M.A. members. For this
reason I had printed the WHO’S WHO data enclosed. I write
this in order that my right to speak as an authority on
Radiology be not questioned. Please pardon this necessary
explanation.
To return to my report-
At the Roentgen Soc. Meeting I was appalled
to see dozens of leading Radiologists with bandaged left
anus, - some with amputations at wrist or elbow, I found that
all these men had been in the habit of repeatedly holding
their -left hands between the Ray Tube and the Fluoroscope,
in order to allow patients and others to "see the bones” by
the -(then) - recently discovered Roentgen "X Ray”.
Returning to Boston I began the construction of
my first Tesla-High-Frequency Apparatus, intending it for
X Ray purposes. I soon found that, these currents f.osessed
remarkable vitalizing powers, and later published by book
"HIGH-FREQUENCY CURRENTS” (Rebman Co.N.Y and London, 1903)
page 2.
Report (continued)
If you can find this hook in any old medical library you
will find the subject of X Ray overexposure discussed in
detail.
While I suffered no ill effects from my own Fluoroscopic
carelessness in the early days of my work with X Rays, I
have the best of reasons for knowing that the left hand and
wrist were permanently (as I thought) devitalized. The first
evidence of this was a Dupeytren’s contraction of the left
palmar tendons, which began over ten years or more ago. This
was over thirty years since I stopped exposing my hand to
X Rays. About seven years ago the skin of the left wrist began
to break down and show evidence of X Ray- induced malignancy.
This slowly increased during the following year and only
began to heal after I begun the use of HYDROSULPEOSOL locally
on the affected part, as well as in my bath water. After a few
months regenerative changes began and within six months the
lesions entirely disappeared and today the affected hand is
normal except the contracted palmar tendons, and even these are
better (I do not believe the Dupeytrens contraction is due to
the X Ray, inasmuch as the right palmar tendons are still
slightly affected)
My hands are otherwise normal: I can play the harp and
still make a fairly good Golf score.
As I believe my case report to be of great importance
I have been, prehaps, somewhat prolix in seemingly non-
essential details, but I have thought the latter necessary.
THE WHOLE PURPOSE OR THIS LETTER IS TO POINT OUT THE
REVITALIZATING POWER OP WILSON'S HYDROSULPHOSOL, ESPECIALLY
-IN CURE OP LESIONS OP THE SKIN RESULTING PROM OVERTREATMENT BY
X RAYS OR RADIUM. I PEEL THAT I OWE MY LIPS TO THE CURATIVE AND
VITALIZING POWER OP HYDRO SULPH O SO L - THE. PRODUCT OP THE
RESEARCH AND DISCOVERY OP MY DEAR FRIEND
THE LATE MAJOR EARL HILL WILSON.
SIGNED
SPECIAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE
SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF
STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTIONS
"(STREP THROAT”)
Common "Colds”
Influenza ("flu")
Sinus INFECTIONS
ACNE; IMPETIGO
Bronchitis, Etc.
FREDERICK FINCH STRONG, M. D.
6129 Fountain Avenue
Hollywood. Calif.
OFFICE TREATMENT ONLY
FOR APPOINTMENTS PHONE
HI 8041
Phone Between l and 3 p.M.
OR BETWEEN 6 AND 7 P.M.
April 29, 1943
Ralph R. Mellon, M.B., Director,
Institute of Pathology,
The Western Pennsylvania Hospital
Pittsburgh, Penn’a,
>
Dear Dr* Mellon:
Referring to the case of Mr. Fiske O’Hara who was a
patient of mine, I wish to advise that I treated Mr. O’Hara for
diabetic gangrene seme three years ago. Mr, O’Hara, who is now
residing at 1326 Horth la Brea Avenue, Hollywood, California, ms
62 years of age when I treated him for the difficulty referred to.
When I first saw Mr, O’Hara his left foot ms badly
infected with diabetic gangrenous lesions that were exuding a blue-
black ichor. The discoloration extended upward to a point just above
the knee and the ankle and foot were considerably swollen. There was
evidence of a similar condition developing in the right foot.
While I had been acquainted with Hydrosulphosol and
its action in certain other conditions, I had not previously used
this sulfhydryl solution in a situation as far advanced or as serious
as Mr, O’Hara’s case presented. But under the conditions and knowing
that Hydrosulphosol therapy was entirely safe I felt its trial to
be well indicated. The final results, I think, may be appraised
properly as most astounding.
The course of treatment followed by Mr. O’Hara con¬
sisted of the following: Soaking the foot twice daily for 30 minutes
each time in approximately a 1:250 dilution of Hydrosulphosol in
warm water (30 cc in 2 gallons). Between foot baths 2 to 3 wet
compresses, saturated with full strength Hydrosulphosol solution,
were applied on the instep and sole of the foot daily.
After institution of Hydrosulphosol therapy no other
treatment was prescribed so that I feel safe in saying that the
results that followed can be clearly credited to this sulfhydryl
solution. Particularly does this appear justified when it is con¬
sidered that other treatment designed to alleviate the condition
had proven ineffective for a period of more than three months pre¬
ceding institution of Hydrosulphosol therapy• As a matter of fact
the condition of the leg had become steadily worse and Mr. O’Hara
was facing the possibility of having to undergo amputation.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE
SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF
Streptococcus Infections
“ (Strep Throat’*)
Common “Colds”
Influenza (“Flu”)
Sinus infections
ACNE; IMPETIGO
BRONCHITIS. Etc.
FREDERICK FINCH STRONG. M. D.
6129 Fountain avenue
Hollywood. Calif.
OFFICE TREATMENT ONLY
FOR APPOINTMENTS PHONE
HI 8041
PHONE BETWEEN I AND 3 P.M.
or Between 6 and 7 P.M.
Dr. Mellon- Page #2«
The response to the foregoing uses of Eydrosulphosol
became manifest unexpectedly in a matter of days, with a quick
decrease in pain and relief from uncomfortable restrictions Imposed
by such a condition. One change noted very early was the disappear¬
ance of an odor that was objectionable, to say the least.
within a matter of three weeks there was a marked
decrease in the swelling and the pit lent was able to begin to resume
normal activities. During the next few weeks the improvement was so
rapid that by the end of three months it could be said that the
entire trend had been reversed and healing was practically complete.
When Eydrosulphosol therapy was initiated there was a
discharge of blue-black ichor from four separate openings in the sole
of the left foot and a perforating type of uleer on the top of the
foot posteriorly from approximately the middle toe. when Mealing
was complete all of these openings had filled in to a normal level
with no contracture and only mild scarring.
The comparatively minor condition noted in the right
foot yielded rather quickly to the same treatment with Eydrosulphosol
and Mr. 0*Kara has continued to enjoy good health.
If you agree that the results observed in this case
deserve presentation, which certainly would concur with my opinion
and experience based on more than 40 years of active medical practice,
you may use the information contained in this letter in any way
you see fit.
I regret I cannot give you more detailed data but as
you have had opportunity to personally verify the facts from Mr.
0 f Hara and examine the foot and leg in question, I feel you can
evaluate this case with full confidence as to its representing an
outstanding achievement in Medical Practice.
In closing I wish to express my pleasure in having
had the opportunity to study your published report on Eydrosulphosol.
Also I am happy to report this case to you, not only because of the
satisfactory outcome of such a case as Mr. 0'Harass which previously
has always presented a discouraging prognosis but also because, in
my opinion, this product is deserving of the widest possible adopt¬
ion by the Medical Profession.
Cordially yours.
T.C.B.A
JUNE 1985
PAGE 2
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Mar 21, 2012
Hi Jeff,
For beginners I’ll tell you something about myself. Some things
may please you and others may displease you. I should start
right off by saying Steve Hinkley, a close local friend, told
me today he will continue to receive e-mails from only you in
my behalf. You seem to be the only one in my opinion who’s got
their head screwed on straight in the Tesla community. I will
send you letters from time to time on matters you may find of
interest. You do not need to reply in the same fashion but if
you wish send an e-mail through Steve. We have a luncheon with
friends on Fridays and he will give me copies of them in 18
ppt. size type.
I am very displeased with Gary Peterson. After publishing the
first book in the Tesla Presents series under the name Sun
Publishing, Peterson came into the picture saying he would like
to publish the remaining two. proximity seemed like a good
thing and I selected his company, twenty First Century Books.
I didn’t know much about him and half way through the second
book he said he barley squeaked through high school and was
happy to be given this opportunity. My heart sank. Fie made
some terrible blunders on the third book which I felt was the
most important. I suggested errata slips. Fie said no to that
even though it would serve to protect his credibility as a
publisher. Some people are unembraceable.
I have grown displeased with Bill Terbo in his management of
his corporation. We both have informed him about Peterson but
he has taken no action to remove him from the Board of
directors. I was selected ad an honorary member of the board at
the outset but if Bill does not remove Peterson soon I am
inclined to ask that I be removed from the board.
Enclosed are a couple of items from my files that may interest
you.
All best withes,
April 30, 2012
Hi Jeff,
Acknowledging you most interesting letter of April 2 nd.
The materials you have amused and the things you have
accomplished concerning the work of Tesla are amazing.
Congratulations.
Your report of the investigations of Dr. Joseph Dyer (is he an
MD?) caught my particular attention. Years ago I prepared a
document of remarks Tesla made in various published media of
curious and surprising effects he observed when the coil at his
Colorado Springs was operated at full power. One was that he
could make X-ray plated 40(?) feet from the station.
Some day I wish you could visit my archive at the Historical
Society of Western Pennsylvania in Pittsburgh. In terms of bulk,
as shipped, it was 50 standard archive boxes, various other
containers for large items. I no longer have any reference works
and only copies of some articles. A few artifacts were donated,
among these a violet ray kit containing a small Tesla coil used by
some doctors a century ago.
My archive was Joined in by Prof. Warren Rice of ASU giving a full
file drawer full file cabinet drawer fill of documents on the Tesla
turbine. He had his graduate students build and test various
forms of Tesla turbomachinery. The bottom line is Tesla’s
parallel disc machines cannot reach the mechanical or
thermodynamic efficiencies of other machines..
Would you be interested in donating a modest size Tesla coil to
this archive? I’m sure EE students at CMU would be delighted in
setting it up for public demonstration.
All the best,
Leland Anderson
April 30, 2012
Hi Jeff,
Acknowledging you most interesting
letter of April 2 nd.
The materials you have amused and the
things you have accomplished
concerning the work of Tesla are amazing.
Congratulations.
Your report of the investigations of Dr.
Joseph Dyer (is he an MD?) caught my
particular attention. Years ago I prepared
a document of remarks Tesla made in
various published media of curious and
surprising effects he observed when the
coil at his Colorado Springs was operated
at full power. One was that he could make
X-ray plated 40(?) feet from the station.
Some day I wish you could visit my
archive at the Historical Society of
Western Pennsylvania in Pittsburgh. In
terms of bulk, as shipped, it was 50
standard archive boxes, various other
containers for large items. I no longer
have any reference works and only copies
of some articles. A few artifacts were
donated, among these a violet ray kit
containing a small Tesla coil used by
some doctors a century ago.
My archive was joined in by Prof. Warren
Rice of ASU giving a full file drawer full file
cabinet drawer fill of documents on the
Tesla turbine. He had his graduate
students build and test various forms of
Tesla turbomachinery. The bottom line is
Tesla’s parallel disc machines cannot
reach the mechanical or thermodynamic
efficiencies of other machines. .
Would you be interested in donating a
modest size Tesla coil to this archive?
I’m sure EE students at CMU would be
delighted in setting it up for public
demonstration.
All the best,
Leland Anderson
May 7, 2012
Hi Jeff,
Received your e-mail from Steve Hinkley this past
weekend. St is most thoughtful and generous of you
to consider donating a Tesla coil and some other
records to the Tesla archive in Pittsburgh.
You have told me something about yourself so I’ll
tell you about me.
I am a graduate of the University of Minnesota with
an electrical engineering degree and a minor in
atomic/astrophysics. For the first half of my working
years I was employed by the computer industry as a
design engineer. For the second half 3 was employed
by the Fed as a computer system security officer
and Freedom of Information/Privacy Acts specialist. I
am a senior member of the IEEE and an associate
member of the American Institute of Physics. I am a
member emeritus of the Lightning Date Center and
the Telecommunications History Group, both in
Denver. As far as languages I took French about fifty
years ago sufficiently fluent to translate Prof.
Merigeault’s paper, “Les Turbines a Frottments ou
Turbines Tesla,” appearing in Revue Mechanique.
Merigeault analyzes Tesla’s turbine as a friction
machine. (Tesla dismissed the analysis.) I also had
some knowledge of Serbo-Croation but if one is not
in an environment where these languages are
regularly used fluency is lost.
I’m sure you are aware of the books and articles I
have written through the years on Tesla’s work.
Leland Anderson
Mar 30, 2012
Hi Jeff,
Your e-mails of March 26 (shorter one) and 27 sent through
Steve read. I’ll save the longer 26th ‘til next week. I recall
reading a note Tesla sent to Scherff mentioning the Waltham
company.
What and where is the Turn of the Century Electrotherapy
Museum? Please tell me something about it.
You might be interested in some things I’ve learned in my
years.
First, William H. Terboyevid, born April 10, 1930. Retired
RCA executive. Bill assumed head of the Tesla Memorial
Society founded by Nicholas Kosanovic by means not clear
to me legally except that he was a close friend of the
Kosanovic family. Bill then incorporated the society in his
name with executive and director boards equaling the
structure our electric power company operating with an
annual budget of nearly a trillion dollars. Bill’s society is a
one-man operation it seems to me eljists for the purpose of
familial aggrandizement
Bill’s society predecessor, Kosanovic, worked exhaustively
to broaden awareness of Tesla’s many inventive gifts in
our society. Kosanovic published a newsletter and THE
TESLA JOURNAL with continued until his passing and
translated the correspondence between Tesla and his
uncle in Serbia, which was a formidable task. I don’t know
of anyone else who would have taken time to do it, The
draft copy was one inch thick before publication in book
form. There was no question by those paying dues to the
society whether the funds were being used well.
Bill Terbo, on the other hand, has done little or nothing
along those lines He did appear on a documentary of the
Westinghouse Company, talking about Tesla’s work with
the company, and I’m told he did a pretty good job.
However, what Ljubomir Voyevic is complaining about is
Bili and his then wife taking annual sojourns to Serbia
meeting with old friends and relatives paid for by dues to
the society. I agree with Ljubo in this. Bill has never
produced an annual budget report for members. I believe
he is required to provide it to the IRS being a tax exempt
nonprofit organization.. I;m sure members of the society would
like to see this not the least of whom would be Ljubo. In event
you are not aware of it I have asked Bill to remove my name as
honorary member of the board of directors.
Secondly, I’ll take up Gary Peterson with my neljt letter.
Are you a member of the IEEE?
All best withes.
Lei and Anderson
April 15, 2012
Hi Jeff,
A printed copy of your March 29 e-mail telling about the letter you
were sending was handed to me by Steve at our April 5 luncheon.
The letter was received later that afternoon. I’ll have time to get
into it in a week or so. It seems that our communications are
overlapping.
Thank you for the Priority Mail sending. The contents appear to
be most interesting.
Please let me brief you on the degree of my vision loss, in
numerical terms it is poorer than 20/2000. When visual perception
is that low, a different scale is used and for me it is 06/40.
In mv retirement I wanted to cease further active involvement in
matters pertaining to Tesla, not that I’m no longer interested but
leave me out of it. I had a dedicated e-mail address and phone
number for Tesla matters and canceled them both. 1 wanted to
relieve my partner and friends as well from further bother.
On the material you sent some of it is in 18 pt. which is fine. But
with my hand-held video magnifier I am able to read only one
word at a time. Anything more than one page is too tedious. So
when warm warmweather is here I enjoy working in the garden on
things I can do and spending the afternoons sitting on the patio
with its beauty listening to birds sing and squirrels chattering.
Gary L. Peterson, 437 Summit County Road 528, Breckenridge,
CO 80424. Breck is a nice skiing resort town. Gary has a cabin at
the top end of the county road about a dozen miles from the
town proper. I visited him at his cabin once quite a few years ago
and the county road has a steep grade just before reaching his
place. Some years ago he built an addition to his cabin for his
book business inventory.
Gary is a recluse One might wonder about that. He rarely visits
Denver. He has not had either a male or female companion.
Garv was associated with the old International Tesla Society in
Colorado Springs. The society 1 attracted a lot of interest at first,
holding a conference every other year, taking over the entire Red
Lion Inn. Almost every Teslaphiie you’ve ever heard of attended.
I was an invited guest to give a slide presentation, Bill Terbo
gave a good talk and Bill Wysock put on a marvelous Tesla coil
demonstration having a young fellow sit on top of a large coil
with streamers leaping from thimbles on his fingers. Of course
the conferences attracted the Tesla cult and local high school
students.
ITS became a forum for the fringe. Membership of those not of
that stripe waned.The wife of the society’s founder, can’t recall
his name, divorced him and he left Colorado. A fellow named
McGinnis, a tire dealer, was next in charge. He sniffed the liquid
assets up his notes. The city foreclosed on the property for
nonpayment of taxes. An auction was held on the front steps of
the building. Someone described the scene for me. A small crowd
gathered with McGinnis protesting the whole thing. A fellow from
New Jersey put in a bid for everything and shipped it all back
there.
This fellow started claiming he found documents on how Tesla
planned to extract energy from the universe and sought investors
to build a demonstration plant. The plant was never built, of
course, and the SEC came after him sending him to prison.
All the best,
Leland Anderson
2008
MEMORANDUM
Irrationality
As a preface to this final chapter I should describe relatively recent findings
of trauma to the human body from electrical and radiation sources. Several
years ago I was invited to join a panel group meeting monthly in a
conference room of a flight-for-life hospital in Denver, in fact the first
hospital of its kind in the nation. Serious electrical injuries of all kinds are
flown to the trauma center of this hospital. The panel group is headed by a
nationally recognized neurologist and panel members are a rather eclectic
group of neurologists, MDs, physicists, engineers, meterologists and
others.
Certain similarities are being recorded for severe electrical trauma to the
body. For example, a vine-like signature appears on the body at or near
the area of incident. Of far greater concern, however, is harm to the brain
that may not be diagnosed until some time later. Latency symptoms can
include insomnia, difficulty concentrating on a topic, nervousness and loss
of memory
The panel has also considered EM radiation effects on the brain,
specifically from Cell phone use. The power of the transmitter in these
phones was arbitrarily capped world wide, and it is yet too early to come
to any conclusion. Study groups throughout the world are monitoring the
problem. In addition to cell phone EM radiation, high tension power
transmission lines are aiso of concern, if one approaches one of these
towers today, transmitting electrical energy by Tesla’s design, you will see
a sign reading if you are close enough to read this sign you are too close
to the tower. With that, I will now proceed with the final chapter.
In the years leading up to 1898, Tesla investigated electrotherapeutics.
The only formal paper he presented to a scientific society was on this
topic. During these investigations, one day Tesla placed a coil around his
head strongly energized with high frequency currents. About this, he said
he would never do it again. What caused him to say this was not
mentioned. Now, of course, we can say this was a foolishly stupid thing to
do Also, when experimenting with X -rays and material stream
emanations at about the same time, he developed large blisters on his
hands from the rays. If a person went to a doctor today with such blisters
and told him how they were caused, he’d probably freak out.
In private correspondence John O’Neill wrote to me that Tesla was
suffering increasing periods of nonrationality when he knew him in the early
‘20s. I put it much earlier, 1900. O’Neill’s correspondence file is in my
archive in Pittsburgh. This was first noticed by me in his writings dealing
with measurement values, distorting the definition of horsepower, he
claimed extraordinary values for his magnifying transmitter at Colorado
Springs. For most measurement values, he employed a ridiculous
number of significant digits or decimal digits. He was obsessed with his
“Tesla” turbine, claiming unsupported thermal efficiency values. Prof.
Warren Rice’s files of work on the turbine by himself and his graduate
students confirm this. Prof. Rice’s files have been incorporated in my Tesla
archive.
Tesla wrote extensively on various topics in the popular media. It remains
an open question whether he chose it because the editors of these
publications were not sufficiently technically educated to reject an article by
him, relying solely on his early record of miraculous achievements. He
immediately lost the technical communityt by expressing values such as
6,000,000,000 instead of 6 x 10 9 as appropriate in technical discussion.
Your father wrote a letter to Tesla saying his stature would be better
served if he would stop writing those ridiculous articles for those
magazines.
In Tesla’s 79th year, he prepared a 10-[age double-spaced press
statement for his 80th birthday. Newspaper accounts of this birthday gave
little mention of it, obviously to protect him and I respect the press corps
for that.
Throughout the document Tesla attacks Einstein’s theories of relativity. It
was antithesis to his concept of wireless energy transmission. Tesla
ridiculed the idea matter and force are transmutable. Tesla confused the
size of an electron with a particle of tungsten the thickness of two sheets of
standard copy paper, a billion times larger. He claimed to have solved the
riddle of extending Faraday’s disk generator which has been puzzling
those interested for a couple of hundred years. Easy to claim but he didn’t
tell how.
There are other embarrassing ideas of Tesla in the press statement, and
the original statement with Tesla’s personal logo at the top of each page
together with my commentary on it is in my archive in Pittsburgh. Do not
think I am not sympathetic of Tesla. One cannot criticize someone who is
mentally ill. It would be shameful to do so. Tesla was an extrovert and at
this time in his life was unaware his remarks revealed his fallibilities.
Some time ago I was sent a faded clipping from the Srbobran carrying a
photograph greeting the head of the exiled Serbian government. The
date must have been in the early 1940s. Tesla’s cheeks were hollowed
and he looked like death walking. He was being held up by someone.
How cruel. In building my photograph archive of Tesla I wanted to include
a print of every photograph of him that had been published. But I did not
want to see this photograph again and did not seek to obtain it from the
Srbobran morgue file.
And so Tesla passed from this earth as he had lived, alone, with no one to
hold his hand as he crossed that somber river.
£J3
2525 SOUTH MEHOE STREET
DENUER, COLORRDO 80219
February 24, 2008
Dear Bill,
A Museum in a Troubled Land
I’ve done throuqh mixed emotions over this for the past fifty years. When
thl Suzei Nikole Tesle was established at Belgrade in 1952 I thought
that’s nice but Tesla did almost all his work here and his writings are in En-
glteh On the other hand, such a museum would never have been estab-
lished in this country.
It’s been most difficult for anyone here to do any research at the museum,
not onfy because of the distance. First there was the cold war and the ap¬
pointment of Tito who ruled all the republics with an iron fist to keep them
quarreling. Thousands of Serbs were politically executed. Tito has been
called Stalin’s Trojan Horse.
The cold war was definitely a deterrent to anyone wanting to go over
there. Ken Corum did and when we were in communication told me that
he didn’t dare go out on the streets at night for fear of getting his head shot
off When Cheney went over there, the only biographer to h ave raade
that trio bv the way, the museum was most discourteous to her. Although
making her plans way in advance, when she got there the museum said it
was closed for remodeling. She got in only the last two days of here trip.
She found all the index cards were in Serbian.
With the Berlin wall coming down and the cold war easing down, things im¬
proved qenerally. But then, Milosovic came to power and stirred up all
kinds of trouble again with his communistic rhetoric. For some reason the
U S shot a missile into Belgrade. I’m not exactly sure about the reason.
Not a good time for Tesla researchers to visit Belgrade then either.
Now Kosovo has seceded itself from Serbia and our president, of all
thinas ratified the agreement. It needed no ratification by the U.S. We
had no business sticking our nose into that problem. So now the Serbian
people themselves, not just the government, are angry with us over us
and have burned our embassy there. We have now awak¬
ened the hibernating Russian bear. Not a good time to visit Belgrade
now for some time to come I would expect. As GeorgeSThLpri ’
“These are the sores of this planet we all regret. They must be burned
out and healed with time.”
MEMORANDA list
Thoughts
aTI Aversion by the Institute
aT2A very personal secret
aT3 Nonrationality
aT4 Intellectual inheritance
aT5 Undisclosed laboratory
Notes
bNI Those who knew him well
bN2 Tesla and the U.S. Navy
bN3 Lillian (Mrs. James) McChesney
bN4 Artists
bN5 Note on Archives
bN6 George Scherff
i/bN7 Nonevents at Colorado Springs
2525 SOUTH MERGE STREET
DENUER, COLORADO 80219
August 10, 2010
Bill,
Miscellaneous notes 7
Nnnpypnts at Colorado Springs
O’Neill, in his Tesla biography, has been found to have invented several
events'. The biggest scape of misinformation taken as gospel by later
writers concerns Coleman Czito’s tale about what happened at Colorado
Springs. He is the fellow who wanted to work for Tesla doing the
experimental venture BUT Tesla sent him back after two days because
he couldn’t do the work Tesia needed.
Somehow, when O’Neill was working on the Tesla biography, he
encountered Czito. Because of all the published matter by Tesla the
preceding years, Czito embellished and exaggerated tales saying, “I was
there!” Sure he was. One would have expected more from a science
editor of a major newspaper to have swallowed Czito’s yarns hook, iine
and sinker, to use an oid Isaac Walton League expression.
Am I the only one to have caught the amazing coincidence of Czito saying
Tesla transmitted power 26 miles at Colorado Springs (which neither
happened nor could have happened-see my various writings on this
subject) and the recorded earlier two-phase AC power transmitted 26
miles from Niagara Falls to Buffalo by Tesla's system? O Neil! must have
been half-sloshed when he wrote this mistaken garbling.
Leland Anderson
flR- 14 -S 2 FR 1 B 5:24 PM CHER INGTON
3©3 814 8554
P . 0 1
REPORT
Thejoumal q/TRAUMA^ Iryuty, Infiction, and Critical Care
alfd SVightning mm °" “ fllrB,ane: Com * 1 Discharge
aerinSU * *’ UD ' PU,,P R ^ ** — « Uion^on. £g <*. ,„ w gg
m
fe present a case of a flight attendant who suffered a
lightning-related event shortly after take-off from
n - , * B h ^on. Although the plane was struck by light-
" *•“««*
0f an 6yevvitne5S > and the absence
Otany Sighting Ot a moving ball of lightning, the diagnosis of
r|£~~S£=='
ch,r»r£;,„.. 6 " miSs val ” s . taolu™. di 5 -
have witness a ■ T\, * ° passengers and crew
nave witnessed a glowing ball traveling down the center a i e i,
of the airplane. These oiowi^ hnii f I r ais5s
b«™ «Ad .0 *2£gfrV£ , 2£F!”
.° r .=rte^r d T l “ ,,n * reSM « *»
a range of the energy content of the glowing balls.
./ Trauma , 2002;52:5?9_.sg|.
CASE REP0BT
A 48-year-old flight attendant suffered a lightnim? re
urtly with four-point restraints in the aft (rear) section At
hour"^^^ for several
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a tingling throughout his body. Within a few seconds there
was a bright flash and loud boom. From the window on his
inmh? flfTr lg tn u ns Strike the p,ane - Immediately after
another flight attendant, seated in the front and facing aft. saw
momim n ^ a lh° f ^ enveIopin S the P^ent fof a brief
h s bodv Th ? 53W " e,ectrical 5parkIes ” ema,,at ing from
body. The patient was unaware of these happenings He
attendant'* S ^ interc . om telephone ringing and hearing the
later as the fr"? JTI!? 1 * f he Was al! d « ht - Fifteen minutes
and h h ! <Sht Stablhzed ' he amoved the belt restraints
and began his duties. His coworkers noted that the patien
was briefly incoherent and remained mildly confused
noted g t h rt °ri ■ T aindef ° f thd mght The odor of “one was
Sa^es a,iP ne ’ ^ 0fte ” is P™ electrical
When the flight landed, he went to his home. For the
bSTS 0f that day and night, he experienced nausea
headache, tinnitus, and numbness of his left upper extremity'
He had insomnia that night. The next dav he vlhed the
and u ' as ref ^d ^ neurologic consul¬
tation, His general examination was norma). He had intact
ympanic membranes. There were no signs of skin buS o
smged ham At 2% weeks, the neurologic examination re'
S a! Tk "j Md t0Uch along the '^al aspect of the
left arm. He had fingw-to-nose ataxia in the left upper limb
Palpation tenderness of the cervical spine wa 5 noted At that
A h e denied memory or cognitive difficulties.
. At . 30 vveeks ’ he continued to complain of headache and
mso«™. **, j™, k,«. M cc , mpllinins ot SSL”
On examination, he again had cervical tenderness and de-
hmb FFr °Tpf e kft a ™ and ffli!d ataxia <’f the left upper
b - EtO and EMO of upper limbs were normal Audiom
«ry was unchanged from, baseline studies
tible M fm^ th l b f in ° btained M 3 ‘ /2 momhs rev «led mui-
wethrnTfm' t, maUef ^P^intense lesions on T2-
aghted imaging. Three of these lesions were periventricular
£* ' 1 « — to «* to* «r.bete h erai ,p h r ™g 2
«r,i« ii°i 2 e BI tal " a ' ” ™”* s »« «ncha„ s A His
ceivical spme MRJ was normal for age.
Neuropsychological testing at 5 months revealed moder-
S:i t d5fe " in 311 modali ties, Mild to moderate def-
of from T'k" COnCentra£iotl and « lode tate dysfunction
dlpitS f “ nCt,0ning Wre noted ‘ ^ mildly
579
MftR-14-32 FRI 0
PM CHERIHG T OH
!03 81 4 8554
R @2
The Journal of TRAUMA* Injury, Infection , and Critical Cam
Fip, 1, T2-weighied anc fluid - att* mailed inversion recovery twin!
images demonstrating periventricular white matter hyperintense
lesions,
At 22 months, he continued to demonstrate forgetfulness,
difficulty maintaining a coherent stream of thought, and left
upper limb clumsiness. He was being treated for persistent
headaches and was receiving cognitive rehabilitation therapy.
DISCUSSION
Lightning strikes are responsible for about 100 fatalities
and over 1,000 casualties each year in the United States. 5-6
These serious calamities have been categorized and reported
in the medical literature. - CL tine P.L. phenomena are less
well defined and not usually associated with medical symp¬
toms or signs, We could not find any report of CD injuries.
The patient reported here suffered injuries from an in¬
duced electrical event shortly after the plane had taken off in
a thunderstorm. In this case, we postulate that a rare combi¬
nation of circumstances resulted in high-current resonances
producing localized high voltages exceeding critical air dis¬
charge values in the interior of the airplane with resultant
corona. To our knowledge, such an intense electromagnetic
resonance in an airplane resulting in a CD injury has not been
previously described in the medical literature.
Fig. 2. T2-\\ sighted and fluid-attenuated inversion recover.- axial
images demonstrating 6-mm hyperintense lesion in the left cerebel¬
lar hemisphere white matter.
It is significant that our patient has typical prolonged
neuropsychological sequelae related to his experience with
this lightning-related CD phenomenon. In this regard, he
resembles some patients who suffer conventional injuries in
lightning strikes. u ' Cognitive problems are frequent sequelae
in lightning strike survivors. In many ways, they resemble the
problems that afflict patients recovering from mild traumatic
brain injury. Sleep disorders and memory impairment are
often prominent symptoms in lightning survivors, Survivors
also undergo a diminished capacity to function both occupa¬
tionally and socially, Our CD/BL patient's symptoms, eval¬
uations. and symptomatic treatments are similar to those seen
in other lightning survivors."
Our patient’s MR! of the brain revealed multiple, small,
white matter hyperintense lesions interpreted as being con¬
sistent with demyeiination. The clinical significance of these
findings is in doubt. We know of several electrical trauma
patients, and two other lightning injured patients, where sub¬
sequent MRI studies showed white matter abnormalities on
T2-weighted imaging. The relationship of these MRI findings
S80 !
March2002 j
i
MrtR-14-02 FRX 05:26 PM CHERINGTON
303 314 3554
P . S3
to the electrical trauma and the lightning-related events is
problematic.
CD within in-flight commercial airliners is different
from previous documented occurrences of BL. Accounts of
in an airplane are rather uniform with regard to the sire
n^°r em f rlt ° f the gimvirtg s P here ' ^ this case report, a
ell-defined moving ball was not observed. Rather, a large
h yr s ftaictl cloud onvolopod .ho flight
Because of us short duration (seconds) and unpredictable
appearance, passengers and crew have not been prepared to
photograph BL/CD. In the near future, BL/CD may be seen
on videotape Why? International commercial airlines are
considering placing video cameras on planes to record acts of
plane rage or other antisocial behavior.* 2 If and when cam-
eras are installed, BUCD may be captured on tape
an , a r r C! L UntSp€ ° pIe Coming in comact wit,J BL *«
anecdotal. It has been assumed that BL is a low-energy
phenomenon because, as compared with lightnins strikes BL
injuries either have not occurred or have been slight. CD may
result m a higher level of transfer of electrical energy Even
though the electrical charges that produce CD can be eWr-
ous, we know of no previously published repons in the
medical literature of human injuries from CD in an aircraft.
of fljrplanes? Dat19er0tlS 10 Passen3er$ and c rew
h,v„ Alth0USh / feW n ' aj0r airpiane Mghoung-wtated disasters
T* 0t ‘ the rime P assc **S^ and crew of
commercial flights survive lightning storms. 13 Lightning
strikes to commercial airplanes in flight are relatively com!
mon yet passengers and crew are seldom injured.
When a commercial aircraft with an electrical charge
comes near or enters a thundercloud with an electrical charge
of opposite polarity, the energy differentia! is present for a
If Tv t0 the airCraft - Thc injuries caused * such a
cuirent flo f "VT‘ ly miniinai because there minimal
XTT men0r of the P jane - This is known as
the Faraday cage effect. In most cases, the damage to the
aircraft is a burn hole smaller than the size of a pencil
for IT ?° Wiedse ’ CD and BL have not been responsible
ZT t n “ y ° CC ? antS of air P>“es. There have been
thftv r B aiUSmS burnS ot ' aifCraft biterioi's and bums of
L^ occ TT; e be!ieve thecase re p° rtedhere is the
U ,n the med,cal bieraiure where the occupant of an air-
Ughtning-Indu ced Injury on an Airplane
plane has suffered long-term effects from a lightning-induced
electrical event <CD). * ea
CONCLUSION
We present a flight attendant who suffered prolonged
neurologic sequelae from lightning-induced CD during flight.
To our knowledge, before this case report, no one has «Tver
been seriously injured from CD or BL in an airplane. This
electneal accident occurred immediately after the plane was
struck by lightning. CD and BL are real but poorly under¬
stood phenomena. Lightning-related disasters on airplanes
are uncommon.
acknowledgments
*f ian , k , Dr ' Karl <3ross for flis imerest and the patient referral. We
UianK L-David Cherington for his helpful suggestions. We thank Jeffrey
Sellon, PE, and Nancy Cberington for their review and comments.
references
1
o
3.
4.
5.
6 .
7,
8 .
9.
10 .
n.
12 .
13,
Finkeistein D. Rubinstein 3. Ball iighming. Phvs Rev 1964'
135.-A300-A306.
Stenoff M. Ball Lightning; An Unsolved Problem in Atmospheric
Physics. New York KJuwer Acactemics/PJenum Publishers-
1999:121.
Anderson U. Ball P,shining and Tesla's Electric Fireballs.
Breekenridge, CCh Twenty First Century Books; 1997.
Abcahamson J. Dmniss L Bail-lightning caused by oxidation of
2000^403^1 r,et ->° ril5 t:r0m n,:>rmal lishtnin? stri k« on soil. Mature.
Upez RE. Hcrtle RL. Demographics of lightning casualties. Semin
Neurol, 1995;13:386-296.
Cberington M, Walker J, Boyscm M, et al. Closing the gap on the
actual numbers of lightning cas ual ties and deaths. Paper presented
m fApphed Climatology, Dallas. January
ip 15, 1999, and American Meteorological Society. Boston,
1999:379-380.
Cooper MA. Emergent care of lightning and electrical injuries
Senun Neurol 1995:15:268-275.
Cberington M. Yarnell PR. London SF, Neurologic complications of
lightning injuries. West J Med, 1993:162,-413-417.
W8-37476 n bi | hWln? strike5: da - n § er overhead. Br j Spans Med.
primeau M, Engelstatter OH, Bares KK. Behavioral consequences of
lightning and electrical injuty, Semin Neurol. 1995; (5:279-285,
Yarnell PR, Lammertse Dp. Naurorehabilitutioa of lightning and
electrical injuries. Semin Neurol. 1995;15;39I-39$.
Woodyard C, Pans! wants cameras in plane cabins. Us\Ttnlav
September 38, 200O;B l.
Cberington M. Matliys K. Deaths and injuries as a result of lightning
strikes to aircraft. AWnf Space Environ Med. 1995:66:687-689.
Volume 52 * .Number 3
581
TESLA files (20 from Anderson’s electronic rchives)
American Red Cross announ. Jan. 7, 1900
BEHREND, BERNARD A. (bio. sk.)
Brand, Wallace E. on Tesla 1 5 pp.
funeral at St. John the Divine
In Quest of the Light (90 min video)
Lectures/Papers 1888-1899
Matter & Force Statement Nov. 11, 1934
NOTES re. TESLA from Swezey
Pennsylvania Hotel Medallion text by me
SCHERFF COLLECTION to Col. U. - how
STATEMENT ON ARCHIVES (my eeefforts)
Tesla letter to Luka Dec 1 6, '99 re. Mr. Alley
Tesla letter to Luka Feb.23, 1899 re. Kipling
Tesla letter to Morgan Mar. 5, 1905 re.failure
Tesla Itr to Westinghouse Co. Feb. 24, 1899
Tesla note to Scherff Jan. 17, 1936 - sad
TESLA-MASTER OF LIGHTNING, Uth/Cheney
TM microfilming I recomd. to L/C 1958
V.P Wallace's fwd to Serb ed. book (Oct. ‘42)
VREME 1994 Beograd exhibition (translation)
TESLA’S FUNERAL AT ST. JOHN THE DIVINE CATHEDRAL
Tesla’s funeral coming at the end of Epiphany required a frantic rush to remove the Episcopal
decorations of this period of celebration in order that the casket could be brought into the cathedral.
Serbian Orthodox services were conducted by Very Rev. Dusan Sukletovic, assisted by Very
Rev. Milan MrviCin. At the conclusion of the requiem, Rev. Edward West read the Episcopalian
liturgy. With organ accompaniment, Bishop W.T. Manning, head of the Protestant-Episcopal
Diocese of New York gave the final benediction.
Honorary pallbearers:
Sava Kosanovic, chief mourner
PRES., EASTERN AND MIDDLE EASTERN COMMITTEE FOR PLANING
Constantin Fotic, leading the procession
YUGOSLAV AMBASSADOR TO THE U.S.
Dr. E.F.W. Alexanderson
GENERAL ELECTRIC CO. (INVENTOR OF THE ALEXANDERSON ALTERNATOR )
Prof. Edwin H. Armstrong
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY (INVENTOR OF FREQUENCY MODULATION )
Prof. William H. Barton
CURATOR , HAYDEN PLANETARIUM , AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
Col. Henry Breckenridge
RET . ASS ’TSECRETARY OF WAR, COMDR. NATIONAL ARMY, LT. COL INFANTRY
Dr. Branko Cubrilovic
YUGOSLAV MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE AND SUPPLY
Gano Dunn
PRES., J.C. WHITE ENGINEERING CORP.
Oskar Gavrilovic
CHIEF, PRESS BUREAU , YUGOSLAV INFORMATION CENTER
Bogoljub Jeftic
MINISTER OF YUGOSLAVIA
Newbold Morris
PRES., NEW YORK CITY COUNCIL
Bogdan Radica
YUGOSLAV INFORMATION CENTER
Prof. Paul Radosavljevic
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY
Dr. Harvey C. Rentschler
DIR., RESEARCH LABORATORIES , WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC AND MANUFACTURING CO.
David Samoff
PRESIDENT , RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA
George Skouras
PRES., TWENTIETH CENTURY FOX
Franc Snoj
MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY OF YUGOSLAVIA
Dragisa M. Stanojevic
COUNSEL GENERAL , YUGOSLAVIA
Dr. Ivan Subacic
GOVERNOR OF CROATIA , REPRESENTATIVE , INTERNATIONAL RED CROSS
In a letter dated October 22,1957, Martin Cornelius, a friend of the Serbian Orthodox Church in
Gary, Indiana, wrote, “Rev. Sukletovic told me today that he does not know what eventually
happened to the body. He did not accompany the funeral to the cemetery crypt rented up the
Hudson River. Tesla’s nephew wanted cremation and Rev. Sukletovic’s Bishop and Rev.
Sukletovic would not be a party, or parties, to this. For all that Rev. Sukletovic knows today, the
nephew may later have cremated the body and taken the ashes back in an um to Yugoslavia”
(which transpired a decade later).
Kenneth Swezey, who remained Tesla’s closest friend, was also in attendance. In a letter to the
then Secretary of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Swezey wrote, “I learned about his death early
the following morning, and got to the hotel before he had been removed from bed. He had wasted
away terribly during the last few years of his life... I was the only personal friend who
accompanied Tesla’s remains to the cemetery.” (Interview of Swezey by Julian Tebo, IEEE)
John J. O’Neill, Tesla’s first biographer, was not present at the funeral service, He was in a
sanitarium being treated for alcoholism.
LA
2525 SOUTH MEHDE STREET
DENUER, COLORRDO 80219
June, 2012
Jeff,
Steve gave me a printed copy of your May 31 e-mail at our usual Friday
noon luncheon on June 1.1 appreciate either or both of you for using 18
pt. type size.
Below is the shipping label address I use sending matter to the historical
society in Pittsburgh. It carries all the information you need contacting
someone there by phone or e-mail.
Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania
Attn: Theresa E. Reh,
Acquisition Archivist
History Center
1212 Smallman Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15222
Quite a long time ago I visited Ken Strickfaden in LA. We spent the entire
time in his garage-converted workshop which I thought rather small for the
marvels he produced for the motion picture industry. Ken was short in
stature and jovial, full of humor. We entered into a lot of correspondence
and he always drew a small Tesla coil schematic alongside his signature.
Harry Goldman passed away Oct. 16, 2010. Toward the end when he
was failing I’d send notes to Ruth for her to read to Harry and maybe
cheer him up. Harry’s lab, which he called barn, was full of all kinds of
apparatus including Van deGraff generators. I haven t approached Ruth
on what she intends to do with it because there may be some sentimental
attachment. I’ll let someone else do thatl
I’m finding it difficult to do things now. I will respond to communications as I
can but I will no longer be initiating any.communications but will
acknowledge ail received as I can.
Best wishes.
March 10, 2008R
Adversity by the institute
The narrative for this memorandum begins in October, 1956, at the Fall
General Meeting of the AIEE observance of the Tesla centennial
including a luncheon with speakers offered by the Tesla Society. Richard
Sogge, who was the institute’s delegate to the observance in Belgrade,
wanted to have a talk with me in my hotel room. He said that it was a good
thing the Institute was honoring Tesla in this way and also a private
society. He went on further saying that the old timers in the Institute were
uneasy about Tesla and rumors spread that he might be a night voyeur,
given the fact that he never married, and some day the whole thing might
hit the papers and embarrass the Institute. But, Sogge said, those old
men will die off and their prejudices forgotten. Well, it hasn’t to this day.,
You may imagine how angry I was at the Institute on hearing this. I’ve
always felt that Tesla should have a medal at the same level as Edison.
When I came to Denver I read thoroughly the Institute’s constitution and
by laws pertaining to the establishment of any award. It turned out that of a
committee made up of several individuals Barney Finn was included.
Nevertheless I prepared a formal proposition to the Institute on the
establishment of a Tesla Medal.
The reply I got was disheartening.The Institute did not object to the
proposition, but the work of contacting a consortium of the power industry
to sponsor the medal would need to be undertaken by myself. Never
mind the fact that it was the institute that organized sponsors for the Edison
Medal.
If I were of younger age now I would go after the computer industry to
establish an Institute gold medal on par with the Edison medal. Bill Gates
and the corporate board of Apple each have founded
notablephilanthropic foundations. Tesla’s invention more than a hundreded
years ago of the AND logic gate circuit element is basic in all the digital
technology in the world. American ingenuity made it a reality. It would be a
marvelous tribute to Tesla for Bill Gates and the corporate board of
Apple, fierce competitors, to shake hands and together establish an
Institute gold medal for Tesla.
Leland Anderson
NOTE:
This lecture was never published.
As of this date (10-12-86) the only copies
that exist in the United States are this one,
a copy for Margaret Cheney, and a copy for
Prof. James F. Corum. All have been advised
not to make known ownership of a copy.
og-a-io
Nikola TESLA:
JjSCTI
BEFORE THE NSW
YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,
April, 6, 1897•
Fotocopy from The "Nikola Tesla Museum",
Belgrade, Yugoslavia - file No. 2105
r'« K -
' ' • c
Lecture before the New York Academy of Science, April 0,
1697.
Ladies 5a Gentlemen:- - ■
\ You will still remember vividly, no doubt, the excitement
which a year ago was caused by the announcement of the discoveries
of Prof. Roentgen. Suddenly, without any preparation, Roentgen
surprised the world with two wonderful results. He showed us how
to take a photographic impression of an object invisible to the eye
'and, what seemed still more extraordinary, he enabled us, by the
help of his luminous screen,-now known as the fluoroscope- to see,
with our own eyes, the outlines of the object. We are living in an
age of exceptional intellectual activity, and important advances
are often recorded, but these were almost of the order of the tele¬
scope and microscope and such discoveries come no more than once
or twice in a century. Scarcely can any one of us-hopia^to^ again
witness in his lifetime an event of so wide-spread a scientifi^d and
popular interest. The desire to see things which seem forever hid-
* * ^
den from sight is more or less strongly developed in every human
being, through all degrees of this sentiment, from the idle curio¬
sity of the unenlightened to the absorbing desire for knowledge of
the highly refined, and this in.itself was sufficient to engage
universal attention; but, apart from this, these discoveries brought
promise of relief to numberless sufferers and stirred all over the
wo rl q ...the fibres of humanity. It is hardly necessary forme to
tell you that the fever took hold, of me also, but mine was a sin¬
gular, grave case, and 1 have not recovered from its effects to
this day. 1 hope you will pardon here a slight digression which
1 have a strong reason to make.
At the close of 1894, realizing the necessity of recovery
from a straining task, on which 1 have been laboring for a number
of i-ears and which still commands my energies, it occurred to me to
investigate the actinic action of phosphorescent bodies. The sub¬
ject aid not appear to have been studied, and 1 began the work at
once, securing latei; at the suggestion of seme ffrends connected
wi i,h the Century Magazine the assistance of Messrs. Tonnele 7 & Co.,
artists* Pno tographe rs, of this City, then doing work for this Ma¬
gazine. In these experiments 1 employed an improved apparatus for
the production of powerful electrical vibrations, as well as one of
my high frequency alternators of old design. A great variety of
Crookes tubes, single-electrode globes and vacuum bulbs without
external electrodes were experimented upon. A surprising fact was
soon brought to light; namely, that the actinic power of the •
Crookes bulbs varied greatly and that some, which emitted a compa¬
ratively strong luminosity, hardly showed an effect, while others,
of much smaller light-giving power, produced strong impressions.
1 wish to state here, in order to be clear, that my efforts were
directed towards investigating such actions of true phosphorescent
light, as furnished from bulbs without appreciable emission of heat,
( 2 )
r<
and not so much those of incandescent vacuum tubes, although some
photographs were likewise taken with these. As both the artists
and myself were busy on other matters the plates in their ordinary
holders were frequently put in some corner of the laboratory until
a suitable opportunity for carrying on the experiments was found.
During these investigations many plates gave a result, while many
others failed, and on some of these both Mr. Alley, who then as¬
sisted me, and myself noted unaccountable marks and defects. Mr.
Alley particularly found it extraordinary that, in spite of his
care, many plates proved defective and unsuccessful. The taking of
these photographic impressions by means of Crookes bulbs brought
freshly to my mind the experiments of Lenard, some features of
which, particularly the action on a sensitive plate, had fascinated
me from the start, and 1 resolved to go over the ground covered by
him with assistance and improved appliances. Just as my attention
was arrested by this feature my laboratory with almost everything
it contained was destroyed; and the few months following passed in
intense activity which made me temporarily forget my projects. 1
had hardly finished the work of reconstruction and resumed
course of my ideas when the news of Roentgen's achievement reached
me. Instantly the truth flashed upon my' mind. 1 hurried to repeat
his incompletely reported experiments, and there 1 beheld the won¬
der myself. Then -too late- 1 realized that my guiding spirit had
again prompted me and that 1 had failed to comprehend his mysteri¬
ous signs.
( z)
n
x
The statement of these facts might have been misinter¬
preted at the time of Prof. Roentgen's announcement, and 1 have
kept silent, although 1 was unable to overcome entirely my feeling
in the introductory lines of my first of a series of articles 1
wrot? v ln thf^coluinns of the Electrical Review. Presently, however,
1 have no fear of a misunderstanding of my words, and 1 am recor¬
ding my painful but stimulating experience solely to make some of
those, who have lightly written about the history of this new art,
more justly appreciate this new departure. 1 was quite well ac¬
quainted with the results of Lenard and naturally often thought of
his beautiful and promising experiments, and yet the possibility of
the plates being marked and spoiled by sane action of the bulbs
never presented itself to my mind. While some might see in unis
only an argument for my own short-sightedness, others, more kindly
disposed towards me, will, with myself, consider it rather a demon¬
stration of Goethe's great words, which 1 will not repeat in the
text, but which say that, what Nature does not want to reveal to
one's mind, one cannot force it from her with screws and levers.
But while 1 have failed to see what others in place
might have perceived, it was always since my conviction, which is
now firmer than ever, that 1 have not been forsaken by the kind
spirit who then communed with me, but that, on the contrary, he has
further guided me and guided me right in the comprehension of the
(4)
marvellous
nature of these w muni festations. Perhaps, in bringing to i our at¬
tention some new facts which 1 have since discovered in ad-/^5<^
dition to those already announced, 1 may induce, at least some of
you, to interpret these phenomena as 1 do. For fear, though, that
1 might miss my chief object this evening, 1 must ask your kind in¬
dulgence to dwell in a few words on the novel appliances which are
exhibited here for your inspection. When 1 trace their origin 1
find it clearly in my early recognition of the fact that an econo¬
mical method of producing electrical vibrations of very high fre¬
quency was the key for the solution of a number of most important
problems in science and industry. Insignificant as these machines
may seem to you, they are nevertheless the result of labors expend¬
ing through a number of years, and 1 can truthfully say that many
times the difficulties which 1 have encountered in my endeavors to
perfect them, have appeared to me so great as to almost deprive me
of the courage to continue the work. When the experimenter has to
spend several years of patient effort only to recognize that a mere
microscopical cavity or air bubble in the essential parts of his
apparatus is fatal to the attainment of the result sought for by
him; when he has to find that his machine does not perform well be-
cause a wire he uses is a quarter of an inch too long or too short;
when he notes that now a part of his apparatus v/hen in action will
grow colder in an apparently inexplicable way, and next that the
(5)
7
[(
same part will get overheated, though to all appearance the condi¬
tions are unchanged; when he makes puzzling observations at every
step and ordinary instruments and methods of measurement are not
available, then his progress is necessarily slow and his energies
are severely taxed. Finally, 1 am glad to say, 1 have triumphed
over at least the chief obstacles, and nothing of any serious con¬
sequence stands now in the way of obtaining electrical oscillations
of frequencies up to a few millions a second from ordinary supply-
circuits with simple and fairly economical appliances. Y/hat this
means 1 need not discuss. It will be duly judged by those who have
kept in touch with the development in this and allied fields.
These machines you see are only a few ef the types 1 have developed
and as they stand here they are chiefly intended to replace the or¬
dinary induction coil in its numerous uses.
As to the broad principle underlying these transformers
or v oscillators, as they might be most properly called, it is simple
enough and has been advanced by me some five or six years ago. A
condenser is charged from a suitable source and is then in any con¬
venient wqy discharged through a circuit containing, as it does
here, the primary of the transformer. The first diagram here, :
1, illustrates a generator^ - a condenser^-and for charging and dis
QJ
charging the latter any kind of devi ee''adapted to produce an in-
termittent break in the dielectric. The cTrcui'SV^nrough which
condenser discharges being properly adjusted, extremely rapid elec-
•ig
l "
r r. \
1
'7
trical vibrations which, so far we know, are unattainable b., any
other means, result; and these set up by inductive action in
neighboring circuits similar vibrations which give rise to many
curious phenomena. Having familiarized myself with these at the
time when some law's governing them were not quite well understood,
1 have retained certain conceptions which 1 have then formed and
which, though primitive, might stand even now in the light of our
present advanced knowledge. 1 have likened a condenser to a
, sYci C jcZa
^t^Co'/nich an incompressible fluTo^Ts*^Si^Mm^/»«(ia^a feed-pipe*f as il¬
lustrated in the second diagram, fig. 2 , the fluid representing
n~in{f*Sy
The. ,* 4 ^ .has a movable bottom ^ held u p by a spri
op^Ts v 1 vherr - the fruTT > 'Tms~Trached a certain height and ths/^^
Cv K'KO
pressure has become sufficient to overcome the elastic force of the
springV—"With the giving away orthe bottom the fluid in t
x y-aYu-C. ia 6/^y.
_.&» . s_ a Y
acquires velocity and consequently momentum, which results in,
7
ct^i <
increased pressure against the bottom, causing the latter to opei
wider, and more of the fluid rushes out than the feed-pipe can sup¬
ply, whereupon the spring reasserts itself,closing again the ports,
and the same process is repeated in more or less r^ia succession.
This opening and closing of the bottom may be likened to the making
and breaking of the conducting path, the frictional resistance in
this mechanical system to the ohmic resistance and, obviously, the
inertia of the moving masses to the self induction of the electric
(7)
circuit.
circuit. Now it is evident that, in order to keep in action the
mechanism without the employment of auxiliary means, the average
rate of supply through the pipe must be inferior to the average
rate of discharge through the bottom; for, if it be otherwise, the
will simply r&main open and no vibration will take place.
The more nearly the average rate of supply equals the average rate
of discharge the quicker will the bottom open and close; and it is
furthermore clear from a consideration of simple mechanical prin¬
ciples that, if the fluid be supplied so fast through the feed-pipe
that the bottom vibrates as it would of its own accord, then the
amplitude of the vibration will be the largest,the pressure against
the bottom the strongest and the greatest amount of fluid will be
* z
jfarrZ* , > ]£,-—-*• “gp.
Passed throup-hV" All these rtnnfil derations hnl ri c-nnH fnr the el art
passed through^ All these considerations hold good for the el
trie circuit, and in experiments with high-frequency machines, in
which these effects were purposely magnified with the view of ren¬
dering their observation more easy, 1 have found that that, condi-
tion is fulfilled when the capacity, self-induction and frequency*"''
bear a certain relation, which observation 1 have since utilized
in the adjustment of inductive circuits. You will note that this
condition governing the rate of supply and discharge, most impor¬
tant in practice, especially when no positively acting mechanical
means are employed for effecting the rupture of the dielectric, is
a distinct one and should not be confounded with the condition de-
T
l
temining tn- oscillatory character of the discharge investigated
long ago by Lord Kelvin.
xhe next step in the evolution of the principle and its
ddc.ptation to practical uses was to associate with the systerKa
self-induction coil«y as shown in diagram fig. 3, which modified the
action in many now well-understood ways. In a simplified form of
this arrangement the condenser, as a distinctive part of the system,
was done away with, the necessary capacity being given to the coil'
itself, and for this purpose theVTatter wo und as illustrated in
fig. 4, so as to allow the storage of tHSO^rgesImpossible amount
3 a.moi
uivCith the^TTrduit^
of energy. Then 1 associated a secondary c oi
as shown in fig. 5, this enabling the Obtaining of any tension re¬
quired. After this the arrangement in diagram fig. 6 was adopt
wCQ
f ° r thS 6XiStinS mUnicipal circuits. Again the
'g am fi Q . 7 topically illustrates a further improved disposition
as used in some of these machines with two or more circuits. A
modification of this plan with’one continuous contact, common to
the two circuits and independent interrupters for each of these
allows easy adjustment of the phase of the currents through the
primary, which is of practical advantage in some uses of the appa¬
ratus. Finally, ih diagram fig. 8 is shown the exact arrangement
of the parts and circuits of one of these small oscillators with a
eak similar uo that usually employed in connection with induction
(9)
jffig&giaj& jtlBSSBdEMteiBa*
<7
l
coils. Although the majority of the preceding arrangements have
been described by me before 1 thought it necessary to dwell on them
here in order to present clearly and comprehensively the subject.
A specific result of value in the operation of Roentgen
bulbs is obtainable by the use of two circuits linked as shown in
Pig. 7, or otherwise, or entirely independent with two separate
primaries. Namely, in the usual commercial bulbs the vacuum gets
higher when the current is passed through the primary in a certain
direction and is lowered when the direction of the current is re¬
versed. This is a direct consequence of some conditions which, as
a rule, are present in the operation of the usual apparatus; that
is, the assymetry of the opposite current impulses, the unequal
size, cenfiguration or temperature of the t vra electrodes, or like
causes which tend to render unequal the dissipation of the energy
from both the electrodes. It should be stated, though, that beyond
a certain point, when the electrodes begin to act as entirely inde¬
pendent, the vacuum continues to increase, no matter which way the
current is passed through the primary. In the scheme illustrated
in fig. 7 or in its modifications referred to the trouble attendant
upon the operation of ordinary apparatus is practically done away
with, as the current^s^the primary is automatically reversed, and
in this manner a tube which is first brought to the proper degree
of exhaustion by means of one circuit can be worked for a long time,
without appreciable increase of vacuum or diminution of effective¬
(10)
ness.
or
A photograph of one of these finished in strumen ts^ es¬
pecially adapted to be used in the operation of Roentgen bulbs,
in general as a laboratory appliance in place of the ordinary in¬
duction coil gives an idea of the actual arrangement of the parts.
9
The condenser'is contained in a box K upon which is mounted in front
the motor for controlling the circuits, in this instance simply a
L . <*> _
coilv-actuat ing a spring, fixed on top of the same. This coil,
A>C
designated as the charging coil, serves at the same time to raise
the pressure of the source to any value desired for charging the
condenser. This is an important practical advantage, as it enables
to reduce the capacity of the latter, so that it need not be more
! _
than a few percent of that, otherwise needed for an equivalent con¬
version of energy. Besides, the smaller the capacity, the quicker
is the vibration and the shorter need be the high-tension seconda-
ry. The discharge circuit^surroundigg the secondary coil^is formed
of a few turns of copper ribbon and mounted on the top of the box
behind the charging coil, all connections being as short as pos-
sible, so as to reduce as much as it is practicable 1 ^he self-induc¬
tion and resistance of the discharge circuit. On the front side of
09
the box^containing the condenser there are mounted the binding
posts for connection with the line, two small fuses and a reversing
switch. In addition two adjusting screws are provided for raising
and lowering the iron core within the charging coil as a convenient
*
means for varying within considerable limits the current of supply
and regulating thereby the discharge of the secondary circuit.
(U)
The instrument with^the discharge rods, vh ich are visible on the
top, di smoun tea, can be inclosed in a box of 12x9x6 inches inside
x
measure.
The mode of operation may be explained as follows. At
CecAf.rJ
the start, the spring con tac tsrtjeing closed and the condenser prac¬
tically short-circuited, a strong current passes through the char¬
ging coil, attracting the armature fastened to the spring and sepa¬
rating the contacts. Upon this the energy stored in the coil, as¬
suming the form of a high-tension discharge, rushes into the' con¬
denser, charging the same to a high potential. The current through
the coil now subsiding, the attraction exerted upon the armature
ceases, and the spring reasserts itself and closes again the con¬
tacts. With the closing of the latter the condenser’is discharged
through the primary or discharge circuit, the constants of which are
so chosen that an extremely rapid vibration of the electro-magnetic
system, including the condenser and primary coil, results. The
currents of very high frequency thus obtained induce corresponding
currents of high tension in the secondary. Simultaneously, however,
with the discharging of the condenser the current from the source
of supply again rushes through the charging coil and energy is
stored for the next charge of the condenser, this process being
repeated as often as the spring opens and closes the contacts.
Although the instrument contains all the essentials of
an ordinary induction coil, it will be seen that its action is entire
ly different, and the advantages of this new principle over the old
are so great as to hardly require any lengthy comment. Merely to
convey a true and more complete information 1 may mention a few of
•the most important ones. Take, for instance, the economy. The in¬
strument referred to takes on a 110 volt direct current circuit,
according to load and adjustment, from 5 to 30 watts. It gives a
powerful stream of sparks 6 inches in length, but if it be desired
this distance can be easily doubled without increasing the energy
v*
consumed; in fact, 1 have found it practicable to produce by the
use of this principle sparks o t<naxl oot in length, involving no grea¬
ter expenditure of energy than 10 watts. But in an instrument de¬
signed for a variety of uses a departure must be made from a design
insuring'the greatest spark-length. Of the total energy consumed
by the apparatus fully 80 percent can be obtained in the secondari-
circuit. Owing to the small total energy consumed and the effi¬
ciency of convo* sion all parts of the_ instrument remain cool by
long continued working^ The .'. latter - are subj ect to much less
^ 'ft*
deteriorationV as^the current from the ‘same : does not, lixe in
an ordinary coil, pass simply through the contacts and a few short
connections, but has to traverse the primary coil, this reducing
the current and diminishing very much the heating effects.
Consider next the advantages of the absence of fine wire
■ ■■■■ ••
in the secondary coil. Owing to the rapidity of vibration of the
primary currents comparatively few turns of thick wire give -he re
quired pressure in the secondary circuit. To illustrate this fea-
(13)
Zulili" Mi* i7V.*^ffS 'i7**~rr v
ture by a practical experiment 1 tdce a simple paper cylinder,wound
with only one layer of ordinary magnet wire, forming the secondary
coil. In spite of ^Wrfe#turns long sparks, several inches in
length, are obtained, when the coil is inserted within or brought
near to the discharge circuit of the instrument. A secondary of
this form is simplest and best suitable for the production of long
sparks, but it is somewhat inconvenient to handle.
The most advantageous features of these instruments lie,
however, in the quality of the effects produced, which are the re¬
sult of the rapidity or suddenness of the di scharges obtained. To
appreciate this feature we only need consider that a spark of, for
instance, 6 inches in length, obtained with an instrument giving’
half a million vibrations a second, involves maximum pressures
which, if produced with ordinary methods, would give sparks of many
hundred feet, since the electrical force necessary to vibrate a
certain quantity of electricity increases very rapidly, that is,
with the square of the frequency of vibration. Therefo re ,pr es sures
such as these here obtainable cannot be secured in any way by sta¬
tic machines or ordinary induction coils.
Still another feature of a more practical bearing 1 may
KMguz&y , .. - • - -
illustrate by lighting a vacuum tube from an instrument furnishing
currents of a frequency of^over half a million a second. Although
the tube has a volume of only about two and a half inches it emits
more light than a tube six or seven feet long and one and a half
(14)
inches in diameter, such as 1 have diov.n en other occasions, and
that is a tube having sixty times the bulk and taking a proportion¬
ately larger amount of energy. So small a tube as this sho -n
could not at all be brought to this luminosity by the use of the
ordinary currents without getting soon overheated, and no better
(tfis't- of. the^effi ci encyoNlight production can be had than by pro-
duc ing^high^Luminosity in a small tube . Without undue heating.
Another convenient and advantageous feature of such an
instrument will be found in its capability of being operated from
alternating as well as from direct current municipal circuits. With
the special object in view of enabling their being used to the best
advantage on alternating circuits also 1 have deterained the physi-
cal constants in a few types to suit circuits of the usually adop-
,ly adop¬
ted 1-h.ere, that is 60 or 125 cycles persecond.
In the development and practical application of the principle
underlying this kind of apparatus one of the greatest difficulties
encountered was the insulation of the secondary coils and conden¬
sers, particularly of the latter. The stored energy of a condenser
is of an explosive nature, and when released suddenly in a way as
it is in these instruments it partakes much of the character of ex-
/
plosions of such a body as dynamite, and enormous maximum pressures
result, which strain the dielectric layers in the condensers and
coils to their utmost. No matter how good and thick an insulation
is provided it cannot.withstand such strains, if there be even a
(15)
slight absorption loss caused in any strained portion of the appa¬
ratus. An ordinary condenser, insulated as usual by thick layers
of mica, which easily stands a few thousand volts of steady or
slowly varying pressure, breaks down invariably; and no wonder it
does; for, with vibrations of several hundred thousand a second,
such a condenser with air-bubbles or cavities of any kind, unavoid¬
able when the usual method of construction is followed,will convert
into heat the larger po rt ion of the energy supplied to it.
To investigate the flow of an alternating current through a coil
with an iron core which is not laminated is hardly less crude than
to cany on a research of rapid electrical vibrations with a con¬
denser in which there are cavities or air-bubbles, or in which, in
general, air has access to the highly charged conductors. No esti¬
mate of the vibration period of an electro-magnetic system can in
such a case be made with any accuracy, whereas, when a proper plan
of construction is followed and the dissipation of energy obviated,
the experimental result closely agrees with the calculated period.
i _ •
By properly building up the condensers and coils 1 have produced
electro-magnetic systems in which a slow vibration, once started,
continues a minute or more, this indicating the absence of any se-
rious friction loss. It is important to consider the precedin
facts when dealing with standards and in struments of measure. A
standard condenser prepared in the ordinary way of mica sheets and
tinfoil, while indicating the correct value of capacity when used
with a steady or slowly varying potential, will have its measured
(I6i
capacity greatly increased v/hen the variation of potential becomes
extremely r<p id. In like manner an electrostatic voltmeter with
its vanes immersed in air, though a precious instrument with ordi¬
nary currents, is practically useless in the measurement of con¬
denser discharges of frequencies of a few hundred thousand a second,
its indication being far too low.
■ In view of the importance of the subject a few words on
the process of insulating which has been adopted by me after sever¬
al years of experimentation, may be of value. One form of appara¬
tus as used by me is illustrated in diagram fig.10. A is a tank
capable of withstanding great pressure, which is connected to a
pump E and its reservoir H through a condensing!?, kept cool by
means of the coil^pipe 0. The tank A is likewise provided with a
coiled pipe C, through which either steam or cold water may be
passed at will. The condenser is built up of insulating and con¬
ducting sheets in any convenient way, several layers of- very thin
paper being put together, so as to avoid defects which may arise
from small holes or punctures. For the same reason it is advisable
to mix up the sheets when received from the factory, as a great
number of them may be injured at the same place. The condenser c
. " - electrical
having been tested by the applicatio n of mode rate*']? ressur ^, is-.
placed in a tapering vessel B. A pipe D, reaching to the bottom
of this vessel, may be provided, through which the insulation, when
liquefied by the heat, may flow in, but this is of less importance.
The vessel. B containing the condenser being next placed in the tank
(17)
<7
A and the top of the latter bolted down, steam is then passed
through the coil pipe C and the insulating mass is kept at the
-right temperatureV'oy regulating the steam supply. The pump is
now connected with the tank by opening the proper valves and a
vacuum of about 29 inches or slightly more is established. When
^ompounji^-''
the meltedV^^as thoroughly permeated the interstices of the con¬
denser, steam is then shut off and cold water passed through the
coil C. The process of slow cooling being pushed far enough the
connections of the pump are reversed and air is forced into the
the
tank A with’f* result of compressing strongly the fluid insulation
and forcing it into all fchs interstices. The pressure is preferably
maintained until the mass is solidified.' The application of the
pressure is not only of great advantage because the insulation is
forced into the interstices and prevented from shrinking away when
cooling, tjut, in addition, any small gas-bubble which might remain
in the condenser and would otherwise at ordinary atmospheric or
smaller pressure be fatal to the instrument, is strongly compressed
and the danger considerably lessened. The mass in the tank A
Min gle
being solidified steam is again turned on the pipe C for a few
minutes in order to soften the insulation on the periphery and
allow the vessel B to be lifted out of the tank, whereupon the con-
denser is taken out of the vessel and the superfluous insulation
cut off. In the same manner primary and secondary coils are trea¬
ted. As insulating material 1 have found best to use a mixture of
beeswax and paraffine of low melting point, about half of each be¬
ing taken. . This gives a tough mass^.4loes not shrink away much
from the metal upon cooling. Condensers ana coils manufactured in
this manner will withstand incredible pressures. Very often in
adjusting the primary discharge circuit it may happen that sparks
of 3/8 or 1/2 inch dart across the condenser terminals, and yet it
will not break down, although the dielectric is no more than a
few thousandth of an inch in thickness. 1 have been unable to de¬
tect any increase of temperature what^verVafter long working.
To enable the secondary coils to withstand the effect of
the enormous pressures producible with these instruments 1 have
recognized it as necessary to build them on the general plan il¬
lustrated in fig. 11. The diagram shows two flat spirally wound
.coils, S, S A , which are connected with their outer ends to a con¬
tact plate p in the proper direction so as to form in reality one
single secondary ©oil, the terminals of which are respectively at
the centres of the two wooden spools upon which the two parts of
the coil are wound. These spools are held together by a cylinder
of thin fibre sheet ff, which is sufficiently strong to insure
solidity and perforated in order to allow the melted wax to fill
/ . • . - - ......
the hollow spaces when the coil is put through the inflating pro¬
cess before d escribed. In the centres of the spools are fastened
threaded brass bushings bb to which the free ends of the secondary
coils SI S2 are connected and into which can be screwed brass pie-
(W
ces ss.
ces ss. The latter are fastened to the ends of the hollow plugs of
hard rubber rr, through which pass flexible wires ww, ve ry heavily
insulated with gutta-percha which serve to connect the secondary
high potential ends to the discharge rods supported on the top of
the instrument (fig.9). It is advisable not to insulate the wires
ww with soft rubber, for this kind of insulation is soon destroyed
by the 020 ne generated at their surface in consequence of the strea¬
mers which will form even if the rubber be very thick. The thick-
the
ness of^in sula ti on between the superimposed layers of secondaries
is practically determined from an approximate estimate of the dif¬
ference of potential between adjacent layers. Originally 1 have
used heavily insuia ted wires with from two to four braids, but
presently 1 am'.vusing ordinary magnet wire^wound together with a
string of a thickness equal to that of the wire. This is a conve¬
nient mode of insulating, not requiring specially prepared wire and
secures excellent results. The middle of the secondary circuit or
corn,non joint of the two coils is connected to the ground, o remains,
generally through the primary discharge circuit* the small contact
plate or spring p serving to establish the co nnec tion, upon the
secondary spools being inserted in the primary .coil.
. < The length of each of the secondary coils is so determin-
ed that it is somewhat less or equal to a quarter of the wave
length of the electro-magnetic disturbance produced in the seconda¬
ry circuit based, of course, on the practical estimate of the
(20)
speed of propagation of the disturbance through this circuit. It
is obviously understood that the length of the secondary circuit is
made to approximate more or less a quarter of the wave length, ac¬
cording to how mudi allowance is made for the capacity of the cir¬
cuit under normal working conditions. In the ordinary uses of the
instrument as laboratory appliance chiefly for the production of
qualitative effects of high tension discharges little allowance is
generally made for the capacity of the terminals, but if the appa¬
ratus is designed, for instance, for generating a large quantity of
streamers between plates of great surface, or for charging conden¬
sers from the secondary or for such uses, then the length of the
secondary wire is made much smaller and advantageously an even
fraction of a quarter of that wave length which is obtained without
any allowance for capacity other than that possessed by the coil.
Finally, if secondary currents of comparatively low tension are de¬
sired the coil is constructed preferably of one single spool and of
only few layers all in close proximity to the primary, so as to in¬
crease the mutual induction co-efficient and reduce the resonant
rise of potential as much as possible. The closure of the magnetic
circuit by oxygen at ordinary or high pressure, while of little^Cf^
■ ■" 01 . £
effect with low frequency currents, is of a remarkable influence
• f • . • .
with currents of these unusual frequencies, expecially when the
conditions are favorable for the occurrence of resonant phenomena,
and 1 am anticipating practical uses of oxygen in this connection.
A secondary coil constructed in the manner illustrated
in fig. 11 has many important advantages, the chief ones being the
safety in handling and the facility it affords for obtaining po¬
tentials far beyond those producible if the ordinary methods of
construction are followed. In order to convey an idea Of the pres¬
sures obtainable even with so small an instrument as the one de¬
scribed, a photograph of the same in action with two loops of cot¬
ton covered wire attached to the discharge rods, is added (fig. 12 ).
The outer wire loop was in the experiment only ^ 2 2 v ^ThTs^'to enable
it being properly shown in the print, but V ^could have been much lar¬
ger, since two such parallel wires 15 feet long may be stretched
from the secondary terminals of the instrument and practically the
/°u>t
Thole space between them, Veches wide, is seen in the dark cowered
wioh fine luminous streamers, that is, a surface of 5 square feet,
and yet the energy taken from the supply circuit during the perfor¬
mance is less than 35 watts. To produce with an ordinary transfor¬
mer such a qum tity of these streamers, which may be needed for the
manufacture of ozone or similar purposes, would require a consider¬
ably greater amount of energy and a more costly apparatus.
These extreme differences of potential obtainable by the
use of the principle here involved are the result of the enormous
suddenness or rate of change of the primary current impulses. In
the ordinary method of varying the strength of the primary current
V
either by alternating the same or breaking the conducting path we
are limited .to the comparatively insignificant rate of change pro-
( 22 )
duo ibl e by means of a high frequency alternator or rapid break, bat
by the use of the condenser discharges there is practically no
limit to the suddenness of the impulses, and any potentials and
spark-lengths desired can be readily obtained. So, for instance,
1 have been able to produce, by applying the principle in a peculi¬
ar manner, immense electrical pressures, the theoretical maximum
value of which can be measured only in many millions of volts,
causing showers or continuous streams of thick, thundering sparks
to dart out into space to a distance of eight or nine feet from an
insulated wire, which behave sometimes like veritable lightening
bolts and have afforded to the few who have witnessed them during
the last two or three years in my laboratory a spectacle not easily
forgotten. Nor is it at all difficult to inc r ea s^lnany times the
potential and sparking distance by the employment of such means
and methods.
. Although in these oscillators the great suddenness of
change in the strength of the currents depends chiefly on the elec¬
trical constants of the circuits, some advantages of minor but
practical importance may be secured by a proper construct ion of the
devices, used as convenient, though not indispensable, accesso¬
ries of the system for the purpose of arbitrarily making and break¬
ing the circuits. Accordingly, I have devoted considerable time
to their study and perfection, and in connection with the typical
arrangements of the circuits illustrated in figures 1, 3, 4 and 5,
( 23 )
I have dwelt in my earlier writings on this subject on a variety of
such circuit interrupters in vacuum, air ana other fluids at low or
great pressures.
•It has been known long ago, since the investigations of
Poggendorff, that, v/hen the vibrator or break of an induction coil
was inclosed in an exhausted vessel, the interruption of the cur-
, rents was effected with greater suddenness, the vacuous space act¬
ing in a certain measure like a condenser, connected, as usual ,/'\Tz'
around the break. My experiments with several kinds of such c ir^^
cuit breakers have led me to recognize that the vacuous space is
not exactly the equivalent of a condenser, but rather of an absor¬
bent, the increased suddenness being simply due to the rapid carry¬
ing away of the volatilized material forming the arc, and therefore
being dependent on the velocity with which the disintegrated matter
- A s carried away and also on the amount of the latter. Thus, with
. very hard platinum-iridium contacts and small currents there is
little difference, but with soft platinum points, and heavy currents
the influence of the vacuum is well noticeable, while, with mercury
or in general easily volatilizable conductors, the difference is
very great. The size of the exhausted vessel is also of some con¬
sequence, the break gaining in suddenness when the vessel is lar¬
ger. Looking at Poggendorff's observations in this light it ap¬
peared clear to me that only a small veloci ty of the particles com¬
posing the arc can be obtained, since the effective pressure, at
1
least with low frequency impulses depending on mechanical means and.
eurrents of limited strength which can be passed through the con¬
tacts without quickly destroying them, is necessarily only a minute
fraction of the atmosphere, being, besides, very materially re¬
duced by the oppositely acting attraction of the parallel current
elements of the arc. Pursuing further this train of reasoning it
seemed likewise evident that, - if an insulating fluid be forced me¬
chanically between the contact points with such velocity that the
particles composing the arc were carried away quicker than it was ■
possible with a small pressure producible in the gaseous matter in
vacuum, the suddenness of disruption would be increased. This con¬
clusion was borne out by my experiments in which 1 found that a
:
fl uid insulator, such as oil or alcohol, forced through the
with even moderate velod. ty, increased very greatly the maximum
rate of change of the primary current, and the length of secondary
wire necessary for a certain spark length was in some instances re¬
duced to 25 percent of that usually required. The length of the
secondary was still further reduced by the use of insulating fluids
under great pressure. As regards the suddenness of the current im¬
pulse following the closing of the con tact s,'the introduction of an
<rr^’ . . r ' '.
insulating v rilm of greater dielectric strength than that of the
aTrT^though^produTi^g^a distinct effect, is of small consequence
when the interrupter in its operation actually breaks the arc,
since the electro-motive force of a battery or municipal supply
( 25 )
c>
circuit is generally insufficient to break down an insulating film
of even so small a thickness as one thousandth of an inch.
The continued effort to perfect the various aitomatic
contrivances for controlling the supply current has clearly brought
out their mechanical limitations and the idea of utilizing’the dis¬
charges of the condenser as a means for producing, independently of
such mechanical devices, the sudden variations of the current, which
are needed for many purposes in the arts, appears evermore a,happy
and timely solution. In this novel process a function of only mi¬
nor importance is assigned to the mechanical means,' namely, that
of merely starting periodically the vibration of the electro-mag¬
netic system, and they have no other requirements to fulfill beyond
t]iose of reliability in operation and durability, features which
are left to the skill of the mechanic and which, in a fair measure,
it was not difficult to attain in a number of types.
Considering, then, that the rate of change of the dis¬
charge or primary <n rrent in these instruments is made to depend
chiefly on the physical constants of the circuit through which the
condenser di scharges,. it is evidently of utmost importance to con-
the
struct properly the latter circuit, and in^investigations which
were carried on with this object in view, several noteworthy obser-
rations have been made. T v v •
.4 ■ / 4pL£
Firfct of all, one draws the obvious conclusion that, in
as much as the primary coil in a transformer of this kind consists
usually of very few turns of copper ribbon of inappreciable re-
( 26 )
si stance, the insulation between
J
v
7
the turns should not require much
care. But practical experience soon convinces him of his error,
for, rerj often it happens that, owing to an exceptional resonant
rise, the difference of potential between adjacent turns becomes
so great as to rupture even a very good ordinary insulation. Bor
this reason it was found necessary to treat the primary coils like¬
wise in the manner described, thus securing the additional advan¬
tage of stiffness, which results from the expansion of the metal
sheets and thickening of the insulating layers during the heating
in vacuum and subsequent contraction of the metal in cooling to the
normal temperature after the insulation has solidified.
Next the experimenter is surprised when realizing the im-
portance of the proper adjustment of the length of the primary
co il and its connections. He is naturally prepared to find that,
sinab the discharge circuit is of small length, the introduction in
»•, 5
this circuit of a very small inductance or frictional resistance
would produce an appreciable difference in the result obtained- as,
for instance, in the spark length of'the secondary coil. But he
certainly does not expect to observe that sometimes as little as
a quarter of an inch of conductor more or less would be of a tel¬
ling effect. To illustrate: It is quite easy to produce with this
kind of apparatus a spark of several feet in length, and by merely
taking off or adding to the primary an inch of K .vi reproduce the
4c
spark-length to one half. Observations of this kind impress the
( 27 )
the
experimenter with the importance of^close adjustment of the cir¬
cuits and accurate determination of their constants. His attention
is forcibly attracted to the advantages of reducing as much as it
is practicable the self-induction and resistance of the discharge
circuit, the former with the object of securing the quickest pos¬
sible vibration, the latter chiefly for reasons of economy. He
also recognizes the necessity of bringing down to the minimum the
and re si stance '
lengthK)f all connecting wires. A well constructed discharge cir¬
cuit in a small instrument, such as the one described, should have
no more than five percent of inactive conductor, its resistance
should be negligible and the self-induction should be no more than
a few hundred centimeters. 1 have found it almost imperative to
use thin copper ribbon in the construction of the primary coils,
the
and with these an observation, which isKmost curious of all, has
been made. It occurs, namely, that, under certain conditions, the
primary coil gets perceptibly cooler by continued working. For a
long, time this result appeared doubtful, but finally it was posi¬
tively ascertained and ascribed to an exaggerated Thomson effect,
owing to which heat is carried from the primary copper ribbon to
the tin foil of the condenser.
It might not appear quite clear at first why the primary
discharge circuit is so sensitive to variations of length, for a
. circuit of any length might be connected to the condenser and, pro-
( 28 )
■<1 $
vided that the' relation between resistance, capacity and self-in¬
i
duction is such as £o satisfy the condition laid down by Lord
Kelvin, oscillatory discharge will take place. But it must be re¬
membered that the velocity of propagation of the disturbance in the
circuit depends on these quantities, and that the best result is
attained when the velocity is such that a stationary wave is formed
with a single node which is located generally, but not always, at
a' ■ point of the discharge circuit or conductor equi-distant from
the opposite condenser coatings. Under'such conditions the maximum
effective pressure at the terminals of the condenser is obtained.
But this state of things is only possible when the speed of the pro¬
pagation through the discharge circuit is such that this circuit
is traversed by the disturbance exactly in the time interval needed
to complete half of one vibration. Now, since the speed is extreme
and the length of the circuit very small, entirely insignificant.^A^>^
variations of the length may often produce astonishing changes in
..the performance of the apparatus. These statements,, should
not be construed as generally applicable, for they refer only to
such cases in which the vibration in the discharge circuit, started
by one operation of the circuit controller, does not die out before
the succeeding operation of the controller. This may be made clear
. by a mechanical analogue. Suppose a weighted spring is clamped in
. a vise and a sudden blow is struck which sets the spring vibrating.
( 29 )
3
$
Let the vibrations die out and let another blow be delivered. The
spring will vibrate again as before, and it matters little what
weight is attached to the spring, what the elasticity of the latter
or, in general, what its period of vibration, and at what inter¬
vals the blows are delivered, the process of conversion of the
the
energy of the blows into the energy of V vi brat ions will be effected
.with equal economy, except for secondary causes, i/mnaterial for the
.present consideration. Exactly so is it with the electro-magnetic
system, and in the early stages of development and practical adap¬
tation of the principle underlying the instruments described, 1
have employed condensers, either ordinary or electrolytic, of very
.large capacity and have caused them to discharge at comparatively
long intervals through a primary circuit of negligible self-in¬
duction and resistance, thus producing current impulses which would
sometimes reach, at least theoretically, maximum values of as much
as 100.000 amperes. A high maximum rate of change in the primary
current was thus producible, but, nevertheless, the average rate of
change was still small. Considering again the mechanical analogue
.before mentioned a valuable lesson is at once derived. Looking
upon the weighted spring as an appliance for converting energy,
both economy'and output demand that the vibration of the spring
should peLrsist. as long , as possible and that the blows should be
struck as often as it is practicable. To satisfy this twofold re
qiirement the blows must of necessity be delivered while the
( 30 )
If
r>
L
spring is^vib rating, and now it becomes most important to properly
time the blows. Similarly again, in the electro-magnetic system
the circuit controller must operate at definite intervals of time
in order to secure the most vigorous vibration with the least sup¬
ply of energy. In the construct ion of practical instruments the
number of the fundamental current impulses is arbitrarily adopted,
the condenser, being prepared by a special process, cannot be ad¬
justed without great inconvenience, and the size and to a certain
extent also the turns of the primary coil are likev/ise determined
befo rehanc^Lrom practical considerations. Furthermore, it is de¬
sirable, for reasons of economy, not to resort to an otherwise con¬
venient method of adjustment, which would be to insert a variable
self-induction in series with the primary coil. These conditions
render more difficult the exact adjustment of the various quanti¬
ties, and 1 have sometimes found it of advantage to adopt one or
other plan, such as will readily suggest themselves. For example,
1 have used an additional coil wound upon the primary and connected
in parallel to the same, or 1 have completed the adjustments by de¬
termining properly the self-induction and capacity of the secondary's*"*^
) in order to facilitate the observation and also to enable
/ . • * . - ** ‘
the exact de termira t ion of the oscillations of electro-magnetic
systems as well as of vibrations or revolutions of mechanical de¬
vices, such as the circuit controllerj. used in connection, it was
recognized as indi spensable^ in the course of these investigations
( 31 )
$ t
to construct a proper apparatus for such purposes. 1 determined
from the outset to avail myself of what is known as visual synchro¬
nism. In this scheme usually a disk or cylinder with marks or di¬
visions, which is rotated with uniform veloci ty, is illuminated by
a periodically varying or Intermittent source of light, the divi-
J.r. s nap p_ -
sions appearing stationary'H/hen the revolutions of the disk are
synchronous with the variations in intensity or intermittences of
the light-giving source. The dlief virtue of such a method evi¬
dently resides in the uniformity of the velocity of rotation or
eventually in the constancy of the period of the vibration produced.
Having been early confronted with the problem of rotating a body
with rigorously uniform velocity, vhich is required in many, instan-
V
ces, or with the similar problem of producing a vibration of con¬
stant period, 1 have devoted some^ri^y^to the study of this sub¬
ject, and in the course of time several solutions, more or less
practical and satisfactory, have presented themselves.
One of these, for instance, was to produce by means of
compressed air or steam, the vibration of a freely movable plunger
to which was rigidly connected a coil or core of an electric gen¬
erator. By the reciprocating motion of the plunger alternating
currents were generated which were passed through a condenser or
else through the primary of a transformer, in which case the secon¬
dary coil of the latter was joined to the terminals of the conden-
ser - Care being taken that the air or steam pressure was applied
( 32 )
only during a short interval of time when the plunger was passing
through the center of vibration, and the oscillations of the elec¬
tro-magnetic system, composed of the condenser and generating coil,
being properly determined so that fundamental resonance took place,
it was found that, under such conditions, the electro-magnetic ~
system entirely governed the vibrations of the plunger and that the
variations of the applied pressure, while capable of producing
changes in the amplitude, were within very wide limits without any
appreciable effect on the period of vibration of the mechanical
system, the currents generated being therefore of rigorously con¬
stant period. The currents thus obtained were then utilized in a
number of ways to produce uniform rotation.
Another way to reach the same result and in a more prac¬
tical manner was to generate currents of differing phase by a steam
engine of special design, in which the reciprocating motion of the
work performing plungers and attached magnetic cores or coils was
controlled by a freely oscillating slide valve, the period of which
was maintained constant by mechanical means or by the use of an
electro-magnetic system, similarly as before. A synchronous alter¬
nating motor operated by the two or three phase currents thus
generated rotated with :so': uniform^velocity as to drive the
wheel-work of a clock with fair accuracy. ' •
Still other solutions of the problems referred to 1 may
mention which, though less satisfactory, have proved sometimes con-
venient ana sufficient for many purposes. For exa’iiple, a direct
current motor wi th; laminated fields or without my iron, vra s con¬
nected in series with a condenser through a commutator or inter-
^arma ture.^
rupter fastened on the shaft of a lighV' 1 ihis device was so con¬
structed that it alternately closed and opened the terminals of the
condenser, as usual in the instruments before described. The con¬
denser terminals being closed, a strong current impulse passed
through the motor, and upon the terminals being opened the dis¬
charge current of high tension rushed into the condenser. But the
energy and duration of both of these succeeding current impulses,
and consequently of all which passed through the motor, were made
chiefly dependent on the self-induction of the motor coils and on
the capacity of the condenser, and were therefore, with certain
little
limits of variation of the applied electro-motive force, ^depen¬
dent on the latter, and consequently a motor with a negligible
nearly
friction loss, operated in this manner, turned wi th v uniform veloci¬
ty. The latter ’ was the more nearly constant the greater the con¬
trolling influence of the electro-magnetic system which, of course,
was the most complete when the number of current impulses, the ca¬
pacity and self-induction were so adjusted that fundamental reso¬
nance was maintained. As before stated, in post of these novel in¬
struments described, such adjustments are observed and, whether pro¬
vided with rotating interrupters or circuit controlling springs*
the/partake more or less of the virtue of the preceding principle.
( 34 )
t X
For this reason the contact springs in these instruments do not
fall into harmonics, as they often do in ordinary induction coils
operated from supply circuits, where the physical constants are
generally such that similar adjustments are impracticable.
It should be remarked that, since a long time, it was
known that a direct current motor, driven with currents interrupted
■ at re S u lar intervals, shows a marked tendency to maintaining a con-
by
stant speed, bu^^the introduction of a condenser in the circuit
and uhe careful adjustment of the quantities this tendency is very
much increased, and for many purposes a sufficiently uniform velo-
ci by may be obtained in this manner. Instead of using interrupted
currents for operating the motor it is practicable to rotate a
separate coil, wound either on the same or on a second armature,
and to pass the alternating currents generated in this coil through
the condenser. It is important for the attainment of a satisfacto¬
ry result in such cases to determine the constants so that the
amound of energy stored in the condenser should be as large as
possibl
h- /n ' - "Is
Pi
While a number of such arrangements were readily avail¬
able, it was f ound, nevertheless, that the.- were inadequate to the
many different requirements of the laboratory, and accordingly an
instrument was devised which is illustrated in fig. 13 ab. It
has proved itself to be so necessary and valuable an implement in
experimental investigations, that its description here may afford
(35)
useful information. The cut is intended to show a substantial and
carefully constructed clock-mechanism with the usual escapement e,
gearwheels ggg, and a one second pendulum P. A small shaft s,
carrying a disk D of large diameter, was geared to the clockwork
through a pinion p of a proper number of teeth, such as to give to
the shaft a velocity best suitable for observations. Now, in order
_ to . rotate the disk wi th a uniform velocity, some difficulties, well
known to clockmakers, had to be overcome. The chief of these is
due to the fact thao the rotation of the shaft s, being controlled
by the escapement e, which, at regular intervals, retards the^CT^^j
the train of wheels ggg, is not effected with uniform, but periodi¬
cally varying velocity, which may have all values from zero to a
maximum, dependent or. the driving weight W. Owing to this circum¬
stance, when such a disk D of large diameter is rigidly geared to
any kind of clockwork, it exerts, by reason of the great momentum
toieh it necessarily acquires, a strong reaction upon the pendulum,
altering the period of the same more or less, according to the mo¬
mentum it possesses. This difficulty is kno wn to exist, even in
cases in wmc h the step by step movement is practically done away
with, as, for instance, in clockworks with centrifugal governors,
or circular pendulums, in which slow oscillations are produced by
the reaction of the moving mass upon the regulating mechanism.
Some clockmakers have proposed an elastic connection between the
( 36 )
— ^
1
body driven and the escapement, but this does not away radically
with the difficulty. On the other hand when, in an attempt to
overcome this disadvantage of the step by step movement, a quick
acting escapement is used, whereby the periods of rest are reduced,
and consequently' the influence of the momentum of the rotated body
upon the period of the pendulum, the result aimed at is but imper¬
fectly attained and, besides, such an apparatus is less sui table
for observation. Namely, it will be recognized as desirable for
a number of reasons, that the disk D should be rotated normally
either once or tv/ice a second, according to whether a one or one
half second pendulum is used. This being the case the experimenter
can render himself easily an account of the constancy of the speed
by observing a mark m on the disk and noting that i z occupies a
fixed position in space, relatively to that of the pendulum, in a
cenvenient phase of vibration. Furthermore, the computation of the
vibrations i_s rendered simpler and more convenient under such con-
.ditionsj^V^X
OS^ie problem clearly put was then, to rotate a bod:/ as the
disk D, or other body, with any desired but uniform velocity in a
way such, that the period of vibration of the pendulum was not much
affected, even though the body rotated possessed considerable mo¬
mentum. An entirely satisfactory solution of this problem was ar¬
rived at in the following manner. On the end of the shaft s, fig.
13 b, was fastened a light metal piece f in the shape of a cross,
ji
ii
M
li
\
( 37 )
carrying on two of its opposite sides pivoted pawls p, p t> and on
the other two light steel springs r, r which pressed the pawls
gently against the periphery of 'a- washer w, which was provided
with many very fine teeth or serrations cut sideways.,: similarly to
those of escapement wheels. The washer w was arranged to turn very
freely on the shaft s, and to it was fastened the disk D. The
pawls p/ p?. were made with sharp edges to fit in the serrations of
the washer w, and by these means the disk could rotate freely on
the shaft s in the direction indicated by the arrows, but its rota¬
tion in the opposite direction was prevented by the pawls.
‘<^TcV^
The operation of the apparatus will now be at once under¬
stood. On the start the escapement wheel e,was released by un¬
screwing the thumb screw t and shifting the sleeve S on its rocking
support. The pendulum was next started and when the escapement
wheel had attained the normal velocity, the sleeve S was slipped
back quickly and fastened, control of the escapement wheel being
thus given to the pendulum. The wheelwork and also the shaft s now
moved with periodically varying velocity, but the disk D continued
to move uniformly, the pawls P/ p a slipping on the periphery of the
washer w during the periods when the revolution of the shaft s was
retarded by the pendulum. When, however, after some time, owing
.to the very small but unavoidable friction loss in the air and
bearings the speed of the disk would slowly diminish and fall below
the maximum velocity which the shaft s was capable of imparting
( 38 )
to it, then the pawls would gi ve it a slight impulse, and in this
manner the disk was kept constantlv at the maximum velocity. By
each swing of the pendulum the disk would thus receive one impulse,
and its velocity depended on the amount of energy imparted to it by
each of the succeeding impulses. This amount of energy depended,
of course, on the velocity of the shaft s during the period when
the escapement wheel was free, and since this velocity was deter¬
mined by the driving weight, the speed of the rotation of the disk
could be varied within certain limits by adjusting the weight. It
will be observed that, generally, the disk would rotate considerab¬
ly faster than the shaft s, but it was easy to adjust the driving
weight so that the disk rotated just once by one swing of the pen¬
dulum. In producing the rotation by these means the influence of
the momentum, of the disk upon the period of the pendulum is found
negligible. This result, of course, could not be attained by con
necting the disk rigidly with the shaft s, even if a quick acting
escapement would be used, as before suggested. The uniformity of
rotation secured in this way leaves, for all practical purposes at
least, nothing to be desired. The apparatus might have been improv¬
ed by supporting the disk on an independent bearing and, perhaps,
also by rotating it horizontally in a Jewelled support. But the
friction loss was very small, since, by arresting the shaft s sud¬
denly, the disk would generally rotate something like one hundred
i-imes or more before stopping, and such improvements were thought
(39j
t
unnecessary. The vertical position was, however, chosen,because it
was much more conveniant for purposes of observation. In order to
reduce the weight of the disk D as much as possible, a light frame,
consisting of a circular rim with narrow spokes, was cut out of
thin aluminum sheet, and black paper glued on the frame, all marks
and divisions of the former being, of course, white. I found it
convenient to draw concentric circles with a number of marks such
that all vibrations within the range of the apparatus could be read
off. In addition a segmental piece of hard rubber N, supported on
a bar T and properly marked, was used to read fractions or, respec¬
tively, take corrections for art,' irregularity in the rotation dur¬
ing a prolonged period of time. Near the disk was placed a vacuum
tube or, in its place, an adjustable spark gap 1, which was connec¬
ted to the secondary of a small transformer, the primary of which
was positively controlled by the mechanical or electro-magnetic
A. .3 v ' r -v
V. >•'! w-*
system the vibrations of which were to be determined. In preparing
a.soring of the desired period of vibration for one of the instru¬
ments described, for instance, the spring was provisorily mounted
on the instrument and the latter put in operation. The disk, in¬
termittently illuminated by the discharges of the secondary coil,
was released from the pendulum and rotated until synchronism was
attained, the revolutions being computed by observing the white
mark m. The constants of the spring were then modified after a
( 40 )
*7
simple calculation from the first result, and in the second trial,
as a rule, the vibration was so close as to enable the use of the
escapement, the adjustment then being completed, generally by al¬
tering the weight of the hammer on the spring until the marks on
the disk, by the normal speed of rotation, appeared stationary in
sp ace.
The apparatus described in fig. 13 will be found very
convenient and time-saving in a great many lines of experimenta¬
tion. By means of the same it is practicable to rotate a body of
considerable weight with uniform and adjustable velocity, and it
lends itself to the operation of circuit controllers, curve-tracers
and all kinds of such devices. It will be found most useful in
tracing current or electro-motive force curves and a variety of
diagrams, and will afford material help in determining a number of
physical quantities. But its most valuable use in the investiga¬
tion of electrical vibrations is, perhaps, for the purpose of de¬
termining exactly the angular velocities of dynamos, particularly
of alternators. Among the various quai titles which, in alternate
current experimentation and practice, one has to determine very fre-
. j
quently, there are some^ which, even in a laboratory or shop in the
midst of the disturbances of a city or factory can be ascertained
with sufficient precision, while there are others which can be only
approximated, particularly if, as is very often the case, practical
methods of measure must be resorted to. So, for example, the close
measurement of resistances offers no difficulty, nor does that of
currents and electro-motive forces, although the degree of exact-
but
itude is necessarily smaller;^in determining capacities one is
liable to make a considerable error, still a greater one in measur¬
ing inductances, and'probably the greatest in estimating frequen¬
cies. In many places such crude devices as speed counters or tachy-
meters are still resorted to, and the experimenter is disappointed
to realize that the accuracy of his long and painstaking tests is
impaired because of his inability to determine exactly the fre¬
quency. To make matters worse, very often too, the latter is the
largest and most important quantity. In view of these facts a de¬
scription of the method adopted by me for the determination of an¬
gular velocities may be of some value.
The devices commonly used are illustrated diagramatically
in fig. 14, a and b. On the shaft S (fig. 14 a) of the generator is
fastened a commutator or circuit controller C, provided 'with any
suitable number of segments, eight being shown in this instance.
Pour of these, 1, 3, 5 and 7 serve to establish the connections of
the circuits, while the intermediate ones, 2, 4, 6 and Q are en¬
tirely insulated idle segments. Assuming the generator to be an al¬
ternate current machine, the terminals t, tj_of the armature wind¬
ing, or of any desired coil or part of the same, are led through
the hollov/ shaft, as may be the case, and connected to the diametri¬
cally opposite segments 3 and 7, while the segments situated at
Fight angles, that is 1 and 5, are connected together
( 42 )
c
through a wire w of inappreciable resistance. Ty/q brushes b, b
supported in an ordinary holder allowing their being shifted in any
position, are arranged to bear upon the periphery of the controller
C. These brushes are connected to a circuit comprising a condenser
c of proper capacity and a. primary coil p, which has but a few
turns of very small self-induction and resistance and is joined in
series with the condenser.
The operation of the devices is as in the instruments be-
fore referred to. When, with the rotation of the shaft S, the
brushes b,. b^ are brought in contact with the segments 1 and 3, ^he
condenser is charged to a potential which can be adjusted at will
by shifting the brush holder. The oond enser retains a certain
b/ b*
charge until the brushes v come to bear upon the connected segments
1 and 5, whereupon an oscillatory discharge through the primary p
takes place with the result of inducing strong current impulses
in the secondary s, which momentarily light up the vacuum tube
(Whi ch is ^
or spark gap 1 placed in proximity of the disk IV^rotated with uni¬
form velocity, as before described. With the rotation of the cir¬
cuit controller the brushes are again brought in contact with the
segments 1 and 3, and the operations are repeated,at each complete
revolution of the armature shaft a definite number of impulses
being passed through the vacuum tube or spark gap. In the device
illustrated there will be only two impulses for each revolution
of the armature, but any greater number may be arranged for by
( 43 )
the
C
augmenting the number of^segments and connectin' t^em i n the same
manner. It should be stated that the current impulses, which pass
into the condenser whenever the brushes b, b^, are on those segments
Y/hich are connected to the armature coil, ordinarily produce no ap¬
preciable effect in the secondary s. This might be the case if the
then
number of segments would be very large and v/ould v be at once noted.
The proper adjustment of the circuit through which the condenser
f course
is
discharges is , preferabl e but not absolutely necessary.
V/hen it is inconvenient to use the armature current, as
i
illustrated in fig. 14 a, then the controller C is provided with
two sliding rings r, r*(fig. 14 b) , upon which are made to bear
tv/o additional brushes bj b^. The latter are then connected to a
preferably
direct current source, as the ordinary supply circui t, through a
self-induction coil, which serves to charge the condenser to a
higher potential. The rings r, r^ merely ssrxsx*® convey to the
segments 1 and 3 the current for charging the condenser, otherwise
nothing need be changed on the devices.
The marks or divisions on the periphery of the disk D are
suitably made so that by the normal speed of the generator they ap¬
pear stationaiy in space. This being the case the speed may be at
once and easily computed from the number of segments on the con-
from
troller and that of divisions on the disk and^the speed of the lat-
current s
ter. The frequency of the dynamo^is then given by taking into con¬
sideration the number of poles.
In availing himself of this method the experimenter can
( 44 )
c
get the accurate value for the angular velocity, no matter how much
the speed of the dynamo may vary, if he only takes the precaution
to make his readings for electro-motive force, current, etc. at the
instant the marks on the disk are stationary. Should the reading
consume more time it is easy to take the correction for any varia¬
tion by simply observing, with reference to a fixed line on the
rubber piece N, the number of divisions which are to be added to, or
deducted from, the speed of the disk.
to- <J.
J^Zfr 7.
Fig. 9
jj
Fig. 12
V X"SWW:
• r i
'4/-M
?'::i
: |i.
m-
m '
Lecture before the New York Academy of Science, April 6, 1Q97
Ladies & Gentlemen:-
You will still remembe r vividly, no doubt, the excitement
which a year ago was caused by the announcement of the discoveries
of Prof. Roentgen. Suddenly, without any preparation, Roentgen
surprised the world with two wonderful results. He showed us how
to take a photographic impression of an object invisible to the eye
ana, what seemed still more extraordinary, he enabled us, by the
help of his luminous screen.-now known as the fluoroscope - to see,
with our own eyes, the outlines of the object. We are living in an
age of exceptional intellectual activity, and important advances
are often recorded, but these were almost of the order of the tele¬
scope and microscope and such discoveries come no more than once
or twice in a century. Scarcely can any one of us -hopui^o^ again
witness in his lifetime an event of so wide-spread a scientifi £ and
popular interest. The desire to see things which seem forever hid¬
den from sight is more or less strongly developed in every human
being, through all degrees of this sentiment, from the idle curio¬
sity of the unenlightened to the absorbing desire for knowledge of
the highly refined, and this in.itself was sufficient to engage
universal attention; but, apart from this, these discoveries brought
promise of relief to numberless sufferers and stirred all over the
worla.the fibres of humanity. It is hardly necessary forme to
(1)
tell you that the fever took hold of me also, but mine was a sin¬
gular, grave case, and 1 have not recovered from its effects to
this day. 1 hope you will pardon here a slight digression which
1 have a strong reason to make.
At the close of 1894, realizing the necessity of recovery
from a straining task, on which 1 have been laboring for a number
of years and which still commands my energies, it occurred to me to
investigate the actinic action of phosphorescent bodies. The sub¬
ject aid not appear to have been studied, and 1 began the work at
once, securing lateq at the suggestion of some friends connected
with the Century Magazine^ the assistance of Messrs. Tonnele' & Co.,
artists' Photographers, of this City, then doing work for this Ma¬
gazine. In these experiments 1 employed an improved apparatus for
the production of powerful electrical vibrations, as well as one of
my high frequency alternators of old design. A great variety of
Crookes tubes, s ingle-el ectrode globes and vacuum bulbs without
external electrodes were experimented upon. A surprising fact was
soon brought to light; namely, that the actinic power of the ■
Crookes bulbs varied greatly and that some, which emitted a compa¬
ratively strong luminosity, hardly showed an effect, while others,
of much smaller light-giving power, produced strong impressions.
I wish to state here, in order to be clear, that my efforts were
directed towards investigating such actions of true phosphorescent
light, as furnished from bulbs without appreciable emission of heut,
( 2 )
ana not so much those of incandescent vacuum tubes, although some
photographs were likewise taken with these. As both the artists
and m,self were busy on other matters the plates in their ordinary
holders were frequently put in some corner of the laboratory until
a suitable opportunity for carrying on the experiments was found.
During these investigations many plates gave a result, while many
others failed, and on some of these both Mr. Alley, who then as¬
sisted me, ana myself noted unaccountable marks and defects. Mr.
Alley particularly found it extraordinary that, in spite of his
care, many plates proved defective and unsuccessful. The taking of
these photographic impressions by means of Crookes bulbs brought
freshly t o my mind the experiments of Lenard, some features of
which, particularly the action on a sensitive plate, had fascinated
me from the start, and 1 resolved to go over the ground covered by
him with assistance and improved appliances. Just as my attention
was arrested by this feature my laboratory with almost everything
it contained was destroyed; and the few months following passed in
intense activity which made me temporarily forget my projects. 1
had hardly finished the work of reconstruction and resumed the
course of my, ideas when the news of Roentgen's achievement reached
me. Instantly the truth flashed upon my mind. 1 hurried to repeat
his incompletely reported experiments, and there 1 beheld the won¬
der myself. Then -too late- 1 realized that my guiding spirit had
again prompted me and that 1 had failed to comprehend his mysteri-
The statement of these facts might have been nisinter-
preted at the time of Prof. Roentgen's announcement, and 1 have
kept silent, although 1 was unable to overcome entirely my feeling
in the introductory lines of my first of a series of articles 1
wrot? v ^Th^columns of the Rlectrical Review. Presently, however,
1 have no fear of a misunderstanding of ray words, and 1 am recor¬
ding ray painful but stimulating experience solely to make some of
those, who have lightly written about the history of this new art,
more Justly appreciate this new departure. 1 was quite well ac¬
quainted with the results of Lenard and naturally often thought of
his beautiful and promising experiments, and yet the possibility of
the plates being marked and spoiled by some action of the bulbs
never presented itself to my mind. While some might see in this
only an argument for my own short-sightedness, others, more kindly
disposed towards me, will, with myself, consider it rather a demon¬
stration of Goethe's great words, which 1 will not repeat in the
text, but which say that, what Nature does not want to reveal to
one's mind, one cannot force' it from her with screws and levers.
But while 1 have failed to see what others in my place
might have perceived, it was always since my conviction, which is
now firmer than ever, that 1 have not been forsaken by the kind
spirit who then communed with me, but that, on the contrary, he has
further guided me and guided me right in the comprehension of the
(4)
marvellous
nature of these^muni festations. Perhaps, in bringing to your at¬
tention some new facts which 1 have since discovered in ad¬
dition to those already announced, 1 may induce, at least some of
you, to interpret these phenomena as 1 do. For fear, though, that
1 might miss my chief object this evening, 1 must ask your kind in¬
dulgence to dwell in a few words on the novel appliances which are
exhibited here for your inspection. When 1 trace their origin 1
find it clearly in my early recognition of the fact that an econo¬
mical method of producing electrical vibrations of very high fre¬
quency was the key for the solution of a number of most important
problems in science and industry. Insignificant as these machine^,
may stem to you, they are nevertheless the result of labors expend¬
ing through a number of years, and 1 can truthfully say that many
times the difficulties which 1 have encountered in my endeavors to
perfect them, have appeared to me so great as to almost deprive me
of the courage to continue the work. When the experimenter has to
spend several years of patient effort only to recognize that a mere
microscopical cavity or air bubble in the essential parts of his
apparatus is fatal to the attainment of the result sought for by
him; when he has to find that his machine does not perform well be-
✓
cause a wire he uses is a quarter of an inch too long or too short;
when he notes that now a part of his apparatus when in action will
grow colder in an apparently inexplicable way, and nex- tha« the
( 5 )
same part will get overheated, though to all appearance the condi¬
tions are unchanged; when he makes puzzling observations at every
step and ordinary instruments and methods of measurement are not
available, then his progress is necessarily slow and his energies
are severely taxed. Finally, 1 am glad to say, 1 have triumphed
over at least the chief obstacles, and nothing of any serious con¬
sequence stands now in the way of obtaining electrical oscillations
of frequencies up to a few millions a second from ordinary supply-
circuits with sim.le and fairly economical appliances. What this
means 1 need not discuss. It will be duly judged by those who have
kept in touch with the development in this and allied fields.
These machines you see are only a few ef the types 1 have developed
and as they stand here they are chiefly intended to replace the or¬
dinary induction coil in its numerous uses.
As to the broad principle underlying these transfo rmers
or v oscillators, as they might be most properly called, it is simple
enough and has been advanced by me some five or six years ago. A
condenser is charged from a suitable source and is then in any con¬
venient wqy discharged through a circuit containing, as it does
here, the primary of the transformer. The first diagram here, fig
1, illustrates a generator^ a condenserV-and for charging and dis-
Qj
charging the latter ar v kind of devi ee^adapted to produce an in-
termittent break in the dielectric. The ~ cTr cuidhrtnr ough whi c h t he^g W*^
condenser discharges being properly adjusted, extremely rapid elec-
(r ^
trical vibrations which, so far we know, are unattainable by any
other means, result; and these set up by inductive action in fr+y
neighboring circuits similar vibrations which give rise to many
curious phenomena. Having familiarized myself with these at the
time when some laws governing them were not quite well understood,
1 have retained certain conceptions which 1 have then formed and
which, though primitive, might stand even now in the light of our
present advanced knowledge. 1 have likened a condenser to
n*<ovfticn an inc<
i compressible
C a* ^ /x/
fTuia^Ts^^^W/s^t^ feed-pipeV - us il¬
lustrated in the second diagram, fig. _2, the fluid representing
^ ^ ^- r / y
elUctrl 'cit7y^he^ % rhas Immovable bott_Qyy^Jig_ld up by a spnng~*J_y
openT^wherPthe f 1’omPhaPPeached a certain height and the
pressure has become sufficient to overcome the elastic force of the
^ ^ ^r, * S'L'U-v
'i^TPSr^WTTh - t>^giving away of'thP botto.PThe fluid in
c ° x ir-ACv-e, jfsr
acquires velocity and consequently momentum, which results
increased pressure against the bottom, causing the lat-er to opei
wider, and more of the fluid rushes out than the feed-pipe can sup¬
ply, whereupon the spring reasserts itself,closing again the por^s,
and the same process is repeated in more or less rapid succession.
This opening and closing of the bottom may be likened to the maxing
and breaking of the conducting path, the frictional resistance in
this mechanical system to the ohmic resistance and, obviously, the
Inertia of the moving masses to the self induction of the elec-ric
(7)
circuit.
Now it is evident that, in order to keep in action the
mechanism without the employment of auxiliary means, the average
rate of supply through the pipe must be inferior to the average
rate of discharge through the bottom; for, if it be otherwise, the
will simply ramain open and no vibration will take place.
The more nearly the average rate of supply equals the average rate
of discharge the quicke'r will the bottom open and close; and it is
furthermore clear from a consideration of simple mechanical prin¬
ciples that, if the fluid be supplied so fast through the feed-pipe
that the bottom vibrates as it would of its own accord, then the
amplitude of the vibration will be the largest,the pressure against
the bottom the strongest and the greatest amount of fluid will be
passed through^" All these considerations hold good for the elec¬
tric circuit, and in experiments with high-frequency machines, in
which these effects were purposely magnified with the view of ren¬
dering their observation more easy, 1 have found that that, condi-
tion is fulfilled when the capacity, self-induction and frequency*"-
bear a certain relation, which observation 1 have since utilized
in the adjustment of inductive circuits. You will note that this
condition governing the rate of supply and discharge, most impor-
/
tant in practice, especially when no positively acting mechanical
means are employed for effecting the rupture of the dielectric, is
a distinct one anu should not be confounded with the condition de-
(8)
termining the oscillatory character of the discharge investigated
long ago by Lord Kelvin.
The next step in the evolution of the principle and its
adaptation to practical uses was to associate with the systerrKa"
L
self-induct.on coil»y as shown in diagram fig. 3, which modified the
action in many now well-understood ways. In a simplified form of
this arrangement the condenser, as a distinctive part of the system,
was done away with, the necessary capacity being given to the coil
itself, and for this purpose theVTatter wound as illustrated in
- . - - ./ ✓
to allow the storage of tne^Targestf possible amount
th-^TrTutt^
fig. 4, so as
of energy. Then 1 associated a secondary coi;
as shown in fig. 5, this enabling the bbtaining of any tension re¬
quired. After this the arrangement in diagram fig. 6 was adopted
as best suitable for the existing municipal circuits. Again the
u-*.agru.m fig. 7 typically illustrates a further improved disposition
as used in some of these machines with two or more circuits. A
modification of this pl.n with one continuous contact, common to
the two circuits and independent interrupters for each of these
allows easy adjustment of the phase of the currents through the
primary, which is of practical advantage in some uses of the appa¬
ratus. Finally, ih diagram fig. 8 is shown the exact arrangement
of the parts and circuits of one of these small oscillators with a
breax similar uo that usually employed in connection with induction
( 9 )
coils. Although the majority of the preceding arrangements have
been described by me before 1 thought iw necessar} to d<vell on them
here in order to present clearly and comprehensively the sabject.
A specific result of value in the operation of Roentgen
bulbs is obtainable by the use of two circuits linked as shown in
Rig. 7, or otherwise, or entirely independent with two separate
primaries. Namely, in the usual commercial bulbs the vacuum gets
higher when the current is passed through the primary in a certain
direction and is lowered when the direction of -he current is re¬
versed. This is a direct consequence of some conditions which, as
a rule, are present in the operation of the usual apparatus; that
is, the assymetry of the opposite current impulses, the unequal
size, cenfiguration or temperature of the two electrodes, or 1 ik i
causes which tend to render unequal the dissipation of -he energy
from both the electrodes. It should be stated, though, that beyond
a certain point, when the electrodes begin to act as entirely inde¬
pendent, the vacuum continues to increase, no matter which way the
current is passed through the primary. In the scheme illustrated
in fig. 7 or in its modifications referred to the trouble attendant
upon the operation of ordinary apparatus is practically done away
with, as the current^4^he primary is automatically reversed, and
in this manner a tube v/hich is first brought to the proper degree
of exhaustion by means of one circuit can be worked for a long time
without appreciable increase of vacuum or diminution of effective-
T . C ' *2.
I
A photograph of one of these finished in strumen tsV es¬
pecially adapted to be used in the operation of Roentgen bulbs, or
in general as a laboratory appliance in place of the ordinary in¬
duction coil gives an idea of the actual arrangement of the parts.
The condenser'is contained in a box^upon which is mounted in front
the motor for controlling the circuits, in this instance simply a
L
coilv-actuat mg a spring, fixed on top of the same. This coil,
designated as the charging coil, serves at the same time to raise
the pressure of the source to any value desired for charging the
condenser. This is an important practical advantage, as i t enables
to reduce the capacity of the latter, so that it need not be more
than a few percent of that, otherwise needed for an equivalent con¬
version of energy. Besides, the smaller the capacity, the quicker
is the vibration and the shorter need be the high-tension seconda-
ry. The discharge circuit^surroundigg the secondary coil v ”is formed
of a few turns of copper ribbon and mounted on the top of the box
behind the charging coil, all connections being as short as pos-
sible, so as to reduce as much as it is practicable^he self-induc¬
tion and resistance of the discharge circuit. On the front side of
the box^containing the condenser there are mounted the binding
posts for connection with the line, two small fuses and a reversing
switch. In addition two adjusting screws are provided for raising
and lowering the iron core within the charging coil as a convenient
*
means for varying within considerable limits the current of supply
and regulating thereby the discharge of the secondary circuit.
( 11 )
The
t op
instrument with^the
di smountea, can be
discharge rods, vh ich are
inclosed in a box of 12x9x6
visible on the
inches inside
measure.
The mode of operation may be explained as follows. At
CccA/.rJ
the start, the spring contac ts ^toeing closed and the condenser prac¬
tically short-circuited, a strong current passes through the char¬
ging coil, attracting the armature fastened to the spring and sepa¬
rating the contacts. Upon this the energy stored in the coil, as¬
suming the form of a high-tension discharge, rushes into the- con¬
denser, <h urging the same to a high potential. The current through
the coil now subsiding, the attraction exerted upon the armature
ceases, and the spring reasserts itself and closes again the con¬
tacts. With the closing of the latter the condenser'is discharged
through the primary or discharge circuit, the constants of which are
so chosen that an extremely rapid vibration of the electro-magnetic
system, including the condenser and primary coil, results. The
currents of very high frequency thus obtained induce corresponding
currents of high tension in the secondary. Simultaneously, however*
with the discharging of the condenser the current from the source
of supply again rushes through the charging coil and energy is
stored for the next charge of the condenser, this process being
__ V ■* • \ • • -vt
repeated as often as the spring opens and closes the contacts.
Although the instrument contains all the essentials of
an ordinary induction coil* it will be seen that its action is entire
ly different, and the advantages of this new principle over the old
are so great as to hardly require any lengthy' comment. Merely to
convey a true and more complete information 1 may mention a few of
•the most important ones. Take, for instance, the economy. The in¬
strument referred to tates on a 110 volt direct current circuit,
according to load and adjustment, from 5 to 30 watts. It gir es a
powerful stream of sparks 6 inches in length, but if it be desired
this distance can be easily doubled without
increasing
it
the energy
consumed; in fact, 1 have found it practicable to produce by the
use of this principle sparks ofszufoot in length, involving no grea¬
ter expenditure of energy than 10 watts. But in an instrument de¬
signed for a variety of uses a departure must be made from a design
insuring'the greatest spark-length. Of the total energy consumed
by the apparatus fully 80 percent can be obtained in the secondary
circuit. Owing to the small total energy consumed and the effi-
' ciency of conversion all parts of the instrument remain, cool by
long continued working^ The .v latter . are subject to much less
deterioration^ as^the current from the - same : does not, like in
an ordinary coil, pass simply through the contacts and a few short
connections, but has to traverse the primary coil, this reducing
the current and diminishing very much the heating effects.
Consider next the advantages of the absence of fine wire
in the secondary coil. Owing to the rapidity of vibration of the
primary currents comparatively few turns of thick wire give -he re
quired pressure in the secondary circuit. To illustrate this fea-
( 13 )
ture by a practical experiment 1 tdce a simple paper cjrlinde r,wo^nd
with only one layer of ordinary magnet wire, forming the secondary
coil. In spite of long sparks, several inches in
length, are obtained, when the coil is inserted within or brought
near to the discharge circuit of the instrument. A secondary of
this form is simplest and best suitable for the production of long
sparks, but it is somewhat inconvenient to handle.
The most advantageous features of these instruments lie,
however, in the quality of the effects produced, which are the re¬
sult of the rapidity or suddenness of the di scharges obtained. To
appreciate this feature we only need consider that a spark of, for
instance, 6 inches in length, obtained with an instrument giving
half a million vibrations a second, involves maximum pressures
which, if produced with ordinary methods, would give sparks of many
hundred feet, since the electrical force necessary to vibrate a
certain quantity of electricity increases very rapidly, that is,
with the square of the frequency of vibration. Therefore, pres sures
such as these here obtainable cannot be secured in any way by sta¬
tic machines or ordinary induction coils.
Still another feature of a more practical bearing 1 may
illustrate by lighting a vacuum tube from an instrument furnishing
currents of a frequency of^over half a million a second. Although
the tube has a volume of only about two and a half inches it emits
more light than a tube six or seven feet long and one and a half
(14)
such as 1 have *ov.n en other occasions, and
inches in diameter,
that is a tube having sixty times the bulk and taking a proportion¬
ately larger amount of energy. So small a tube as this sho -n
coulu not at all be brought to this luminosity by the use of the
ordinary currents without getting soon overheated, and no better
ctfist. of. the^effi cienc^^o^light production can be had than by pro-
ducing^highKLuminosity in a small tube, Without undue heating.
Another convenient and advantageous feature of such an
instrument will be found in its capability of being operated from
alternating as well as from direct current municipal circuits. With
the special object in view of enabling their being used to the best
advantage on alternating circuits also 1 have aeteimined the physi-
cal constants in a few types to suit circuits of the usually adop¬
ted --here, that is 60 or 125 cycles persecond.
In the development and practical application of the principle
underlying this kind of apparatus one of the greatest difficulties
encountered was the insulation of the secondary coils and conden¬
sers, particularly of the latter. The stored energy of a condenser
is of an explosive nature, and when released suddenly in a way as
it is in these instruments it partakes much of the character of ex-
/ *
Plosi ons of such a body as dynamite, and enormous maximum pressures
result, which strain the dielectric layers in the condensers and
coils to their utmost. No matter how good and thick an insulation
is provided it cannot.withstand such strains, if there be even a
(15;
slight absorption loss caused in any strained portion of the appa¬
ratus. An ordinary condenser, insulated as usual by thick layers
of mica, which easily stands a few thousand volts of steady or
slowly varying pressure, breaks down invariably; and no wonder it
'does; for, with vibrations of several hundred thousand a second,
such a condenser'with air-bubbles or cavities of any kind, unavoid¬
able when the usual method of construction is followed,will convert
into heat the larger portion of the energy supplied to it.
To investigate the flow of an alternating current through a coil
with an iron core which is not laminated is hardly less crude than
to carry on a research of rapid electrical vibrations with a con¬
denser in which there are cavities or air-bubbles, or in which, in
general, air has access to the highly charged conductors. No esti¬
mate of the vibration period of an electro-magnetic system can in
such a case be made with any accuracy, whereas, when a proper plan
of construction is followed and the dissipation of energy obviated,
the experimental result closely agrees with the calculated period.
i
3y properly building up the condensers and coils 1 have produced
electro-magnetic systems in which a slow vibration, once started,
continues a minute or more, this indicating the absence of any se-
rious friction loss. It is important to consider the preceding
facts when dealing with standards and in struments of measure. A
standard condenser prepared in the ordinary way of mica sheets and
tinfoil, while indicating the correct value of capacity when used
with a steady or slowly varying potential, will have its measured
(I6i
capacity greatly increased v/hen the variation of potential becomes
extremely r ep id. In like manner an electrostatic voltmeter with
its vanes immersed in air, though a precious instrument with ordi¬
nary currents, is practically useless in the measurement of con¬
denser discharges of frequencies of a few hundred thousand a second,
its indication being far too low.
In view of the importance of the subject a few words on
the process of insulating which has been adopted by me after sever¬
al years of experimentation, may' be of value. One form of appara¬
tus as used by me is illustrated in diagram fig.10. A is a tank
capable of withstanding great pressure, which is connected to a
pump E and its reservoir H through a condensing^, kept cool by
means of the coil^pipe 0. The tank A is likewise provided with a
coiled pipe C, through which either steam or cold water may be
passed at will. The condenser is built up of insulating and con¬
ducting sheets in any convenient way, several layers of- very thin
paper being put together, so as to avoid defects which may arise
from small holes or punctures. For the same reason it is advisable
to mix up the sheets when received from the factory, as a great
number of them may be injured at the same place. The condenser c
- electrical
having been tested by the applicatio n o.f mode rat e^pres sur gA ^. is. -.
placed In a tapering vessel B. A pipe D, reaching to the bottom
of this vessel, maybe provided, through which the insulation, when
liquefied by the heat, may flow in, but this is of less importance.
The vessel. 3 containing the condenser being next placed in the tank
(17)
A and the top of the latter bolted down, steam is then passed
now connected with the tank by opening the proper valves and a
vacuum of about 29 inches or slightly more is established. When
v£ompoun£^-'
'the melted^V^^a 3 thoroughly permeated the interstices of the con¬
denser, steam is then shut off and cold water passed through the
coil C. The process of slow cooling being pushed far enough the
connections of the pump are reversed and air is forced into the
the
tank A with** result of compressing strongly the fluid insulation
ana fo rc ing it into all fch* interstices. The pressure is preferably'
maintained until the mass is solidified.' The application of the
pressure is not only of great advantage because the insulation is
forced into the interstices and prevented from shrinking away when
cooling, t}Ut, in addition, any small gas-bubble which might remain
in the condenser and would otherwise at ordinary atmospheric or
smaller pressure be fatal to the instrument, is strongly compressed
and the danger considerably lessened. The mass in the tank A
being solidified steam is again turned on .the pipe C for a few
minutes in order to soften the insulation on the periphery and
allow the vessel B to be lifted out of the tank, whereupon the con¬
denser is taken out of the vessel and the superfluous insulation
cut off. In the seme manner primary and secondary coils are trea¬
through the coil pipe C and the insulating mass is kept at the
-right temper a tuTeVlTy regulating the steam s'upply. The pump is
ted. As insulating material 1 have found best to use a mixture of
(18)
beeswax and paraffine of low melting point, about half of each be¬
ing taken. This gives a tough mass^'^does not shrink away much
from the metal upon cooling. Condensers and coils manufactured in
this manner will withstand incredible pressures. Very often in
adjusting the primary discharge circuit it may happen that sparxs
of 3/3 or 1/2 inch dart across the condenser terminals, and yet it
•will not break down, although the dielectric is no more than a
few thousandth of an inch in thickness. 1 have been unable to de¬
tect any increase of temperature whateve?Vaft er long working.
To enable the secondary coils to withstand the effect of
the enormous pressures producible with these instruments 1 have
recognized it as necessary to build them on the general plan il¬
lustrated in fig. 11. The diagram shows two flat spirally wound
coils, S, S A , which are connected with their outer ends to a con¬
tact plate p in the proper direction so as to form in reality one
single secondary 00 il, the terminals of which are respectively at
the centres of the two wooden spools upon which the two parts of
the coil are wound. These spools are held together by a cylinder
of thin fibre sheet ff, which is sufficiently strong to insure
solidity and perforated in order to allow the melted wax to fill
the hollow spaces when the coil is put through the insilating pro¬
cess before d escribed. In the centres of the spools are fastened
threaded brass bushings bb to which the free ends of the secondary
coils SI S2 are connected and into which can be screwed brass pie-
ces ss. The latter are fastened to the ends of the hollow plugs of
hard rubber rr, through which pass flexible wires ww, ve ry heavily
insulated with gutta-percha which serve to connect the secondary
high potential ends to the discharge rods supported on the top of
the instrument (fig.9). It is advisable not to insulate the wires
ww with soft rubber, for this kind of insulation is soon destroyed
by the 020 ne generated at their surface in consequence of the strea¬
mers which will fora even if the rubber be very thick. The thick-
the
ness of^in sula ti on between the superimposed layers of secondaries
is practically determined from an approximate estimate of the dif¬
ference of potential between adjacent layers. Originally 1 have
used heavily insulated wires with from two to four braids, but
string of a thickness equal to that of the wire. This is a conve¬
nient mode of insulating, not requiring specially prepared wire and
secures excellent results. The middle of the s econdary circuit or
common Joint of the two coils is connected to the ground, o remains,
generally through the primary discharge circuit* the small contact
plate or spring p serving to establish the co nnec tion* upon the
secondary spools being inserted in the primary .coil.
/ .
The length of each of the secondary' colls is so determin¬
ed that it is somewhat less or equal to a quarter of the wave
presently 1 am'.using ordinary magnet wire^wound together with a
length of the electro-magnetic disturbance produced in the seconda¬
ry circuit based, of course, on the practical estimate of the
(20)
speed of propagation of the disturb;.nee through this circuit. It
is obviously understood that the length of the secondary circuit is
made to approximate more or less a quarter of the wave length, ac¬
cording to how muih allowance is made for the capacity of the cir¬
cuit under normal wording conditions. In the ordinary uses of the
instrument as laboratory appliance chiefly for the production of
qualitative effects of high tension discharges little allowance is
• generally made for the capacity of the terminals, but if the appa¬
ratus is designed, for instance, for generating a large quantity of
streamers between plates of great surface, or for charging conden¬
sers from the secondary or for such uses, then the length of the
secondary wire is made much smaller and advantageously an even
fraction of a quarter of that wave length which is obtained without
any allowance for capacity other than that possessed by the coil.
Finally, if secondary currents of comparatively low tension are de¬
sired the coil is constructed preferably of one single spool and of
*
only few layers all in close proximity to the primary, so as to in¬
crease the mutual induction co-efficient and reduce the resonant
rise of potential as much as possible. The closure of the magnetic
circuit by oxygen at ordinary or high pressure, while of little
effect with low frequency currents, is of a remarkable influence
with currents of these unusual frequencies, expecially when the
conditions are favorable for the occurrence of resonant phenomena,
and 1 am anticipating practical uses of oxygen in this connection.
A secondary coil constructed in the manner illustrated
(21)
in fig. H has many important advantages, the chief ones being the
safety in handling and the facility it affords for obtaining po¬
tentials far beyond those producible if the ordinary methods of
construction are followed. In order to convey an idea Of the pres¬
sures obtainable even with so small an instrument as the one de¬
scribed, a photograph of the same in action with two loops of cot¬
ton covered wire attached to the discharge rods, is added (fig.in).
The outer wire loop was in the experiment only ^2 v ^che*s^o enable
it being properly shov/n in the print, bur y could have been much lar¬
ger, since two such parallel wires 15 feet long may be stretched
from the secondary terminals of the instrument and practically the
four>
ol e space between them, finches wide, is seen in the dark cowered
^1-h fine luminous streamers, that is, a surface of 5 square feet,
and yet the energy taken from the supply circuit during the perfor¬
mance is less than 35 watts. To produce with an ordinary transfor¬
mer such a quai tity of these streamers, which may be needed for the
manufacture of ozone or similar purposes, would require a consider-
ably greater amount of energy and a more costly apparatus.
These extreme differences of potential obtainable by the
use of the principle here involved are the result of the enormous
/ •
suddenness or rate of change of the primary current impulses. In
the ordinary method of varying the strength of the primary c urrent
y
either by alternating the same or breaking the conducting path we
are limited to the comparatively insignificant rate of change pro-
(22)
ducible by means of a high frequency alternator or rapid break, but
by the use of the condenser discharges there is practically no
limit to the suddenness of the impulses, and any potentials and
spark-lengths desired can be readily obtained. So, for instance,
1 have been able to produce, by applying the principle in a peculi¬
ar manner, immense electrical pressures, the theoretical maximum
value of which can be measured only in many millions of volts,
causing showers or continuous streams of thick, thundering sparks
to dart out into space to a distance of eight or nine feet from an
insulated wire, which behave sometimes like veritable lightening
bolts and have afforded to the few who have witnessed them during
the last two or three years in my laboratory a spectacle not easily
forgotten. Nor is it at all difficult to incr ea s^many" t imes The
potential and sparking distance by the employment of such means
and methods.
Although in these oscillators the great suddenness of
change in the strength of the currents depends chiefly on the elec¬
trical constants of the circuits, some advantages of minor but
practical importance may be secured by a proper construction of the
devices, used a3 convenient, though not indispensable, accesso¬
ries of the system for the purpose of arbitrarily making and break¬
ing the circuits. Accordingly, 1 have devoted considerable time
to their study and perfection, and in connection with the typical
arrangements of the circuits illustrated in figures 1, 3, 4 and 5,
(23)
I have dwelt in my earlier writings on this subject on a variety of
such circuit interrupters in vacuum, air and other fluids at low or
great pressures.
.It has been known long ago, since the investigations of
Poggendorff, that, v/hen the vibrator or break of an induction coil
was inclosed in an exhausted vessel, the interruption of the cur¬
rents was effected with greater suddenness, the vacuous space act¬
ing in a certain measure like a condenser, connected, as usual,
around the break. My experiments with several kinds of such cir¬
cuit breakers have led me to recognize that the vacuous space is
not exactly the equivalent of a condenser, but rather of an absor-
bent, the increased suddenness being simply due to the rapid carry¬
ing away of the volatilized material forming the arc, and therefore
being dependent on the velocity with which the disintegrated matter
is carried away and also on the amount of the latter. Thus, with
very hard platinum-iridium contacts and small currents there is
little difference, but with soft platinum points and heavy currents
the influence of the vacuum is well noticeable, while, with mercury
or in general easily volatilizable conductors, the difference is
rery great. The size of the exhausted vessel is also of some con¬
sequence, the break gaining in suddenness when the vessel is lar¬
ger. Looking at Poggendorff's observations in this light it ap¬
peared clear to me that only a small veloci ty of the particles com¬
posing the arc can be obtained, since the effective pressure, at
( 24)
least with low frequency impulses depending on mechanical means and
aurrents of limited strength which can be passed through the con¬
tacts without quickly destroying them, is necessarily only a minute
fraction of the atmosphere, being, besides, very materially re¬
duced by the oppositely acting attraction of the parallel current
elements of the arc. Pursuing further this train of reasoning it
seemed likewise evident that,’if an insulating fluid be forced me¬
chanically between the contact points with such velocity that the
particles composing the arc were carried away quicker than it was •
possible with a small pressure producible in the gaseous matter in
vacuum, the suddenness of disruption would be increased. This con¬
clusion was borne out by my experiments in which 1 found that a
fluid insulator, such as oil or alcohol, forced through the gap
with even moderate velocity, increased very greatly the maximum
rate of change of the primary current, and the length of secondary
wire necessary for a certain spark length was in some instances re¬
duced to 25 per cent of that usually required. The length of the
secondary was still further reduced by the use of insulating fluids
under great pressure. As regards the suddenness of the current im¬
pulse following the closing of the con tact s,' the introduction of an
of greater dielectric strength than that of the
air^though producing a distinct effect, is of small consequence
when the interrupter in its operation actually breaks the arc,
since the electro-motive force of a battery or municipal supply
(25)
insulating v 'film
circuit is generally insufficient to break down an insulating film
of even so small a thickness as one thousandth of an inch.
The continued effort to perfect the various aitomatic
contrivances for controlling the supply current has clearly brought
out their mechanical limitations and the idea of utilizing'the dis¬
charges of the condenser as a means for produc ing, indep endently of
such mechanical devices, the sudden variations of the current, which
are needed for many purposes in the arts, appears evermore a.happy
and timely solution. In this novel process a function of only mi¬
nor importance is assigned to the mechanical means,' namely, that
of merely start ing p eri odi cal ly the vibration of the electro-mag¬
netic system, and they have no other requirements to fulfill beyond
those of reliability in operation and durability, features which
are left to the skill of the mechanic and which, in a fair measure,
.it was not difficult to attain in a number of types.
Considering, then, that the rate of change of the dis¬
charge or primary <u rrent in these instruments is made to depend
chiefly on the physical constants of the circuit through which the
\
condenser discharges,. it is evidently of utmost importance to con-
the
struct properly the latter circuit, and in^investigations which
were carried on with this object in view, several noteworthy obser¬
vations have been made. •
Firfet of all, one draw's the obvious conclusion that, in
as much as the primary coil in a transformer of this kind consists
usually of very few turns of copper ribbon of inappreciable re-
si Stance, the insulation between the turns should not require much
care. But practical experience soon convinces him of his error,
for, rer; often it happens that, owing to an exceptional resonant
rise, the difference of potential between adjacent turns becomes
so great as to rupture even a very good ordinary insulation. For
this reason it was found necessary to treat the primary coils like¬
wise in the manner described, thus securing the additional advan¬
tage of stiffness, which results from the expansion of the metal
sheets and thickening of the insulating layers during the heating
in vacuum and subsequent contraction of the metal in cooling to the
normal temperature after the insulation has solidified.
Next the experimenter is surprised when realizing the im¬
portance of the proper adjustment of the length of the primary
coil and its connections. He is naturally prepared to find that,
sinc-6 the discharge circuit is of small length, the introduction in
v.
this circuit of a very small inductance or frictional resistance
would produce an appreciable difference in the result obtained- as,
for instance, in the spark length of'the secondary coil. But he
certainly does not expect to observe that sometimes as little as
a quarter of an inch of conductor more or less would be of a tel-
✓
ling effect. To illustrate: It is quite easy to produce with this
kind of apparatus a spark of several feet in length, and by merely
taking off or adding to the primary an inch of K .vi re^reauce the
4c
spark-length to one half. Observations of this kind impress the
(27)
the
experimenter with the importance of close adjustment of the cir¬
cuits and accurate determination of their constants. His attention
is forcibly attracted to the advantages of reducing as much as it
is practicable the self-induction and resistance of the discharge
circuit, the former with the object of securing the quickest pos¬
sible vibration, the latter chiefly for reasons of economy. He
also recognizes the necessi ty of bringing down to the minimum the
and resi stance *
lengthKof all connecting wires. A well constructed discharge cir¬
cuit in a small instrument, such as the one described, should have
no more than five percent of inactive conductor, its resistance
should be negligible and the self-induction should be no more than
a few hundred centimeters. • 1 have found it almost imperative to
use thin copper ribbon in the construction of the primary coils,
the
and with these an observation, which isKmost curious of all, has
been made. It occurs, namely, that, under certain conditions, the
primary coil gets perceptibly cooler by continued working. For a
long time this result appeared doubtful, but finally it was posi¬
tively ascertained and ascribed to an exaggerated Thomson effect,
owing to which heat is carried from the primary copper ribbon to
the tin foil of the condenser.
It might not appear quite clear at first why the primary
discharge circuit is so sensitive to variations of length, for a
circuit of any length might be connected to the condenser and, pro-
(23)
vided that the relation between resistance, capacity and self-in¬
duction is such as £o satisfy the condition laid down by Lord
Kelvin, oscillatory discharge will take place. But it must be re¬
membered that the velocity of propagation of the disturbance in the
circuit depends on these quantities, and that the best result is
attained when the velocity is such that a stationary wave is formed
with a single node which is located generally, but not always, at
a . point of the discharge circuit or conductor equi-distant from
the opposite condenser coatings. Under'such conditions the maximum
effective pressure at the terminals of the condenser is obtained.
But this state of things is only possible when the speed of the pro¬
pagation through the discharge circuit is such that this circuit
is traversed by the disturbance exactly in the time interval needed
to complete half of one vibration. Now, since the speed is extreme
and the length of the circuit very small, entirely insignificant
variations of the length may often produce astonishing changes in
/
..the performance of the apparatus. These statements, *^e*****4- , should
.not be construed as generally applicable, for they refer only to
such cases in which the vibration in the discharge circuit, started
by one operation of the circuit controller, does not die out before
the succeeding operation of the cohtroller. This may be made clear
by a mechanical analogue. Suppose a weighted spring is clamped in
a vise and a sudden blow is struck which sets the spring vibrating.
(29)
Let the vibrations die out and let another blow be delivered. The
spring will vibrate again as before, and it matters little what
weight is attached to the spring, what the elasticity of the latter
or, in general, what its period of vibration, and at what inter¬
vals .the blows are delivered, the process of conversion of the
the
energy of the blows into the energy of ^vi brat ions will be effected
..with equal economy, except for secondary causes, i.^naterial for the
.present consideration. Exactly so is it with the electro-magnetic
system, and in the early stages of development and practical adap¬
tation of the prindple underlying the instruments described, 1
have employed condensers, either ordinary or electrolytic, of very
.large capacity' and have caused them to discharge at comparatively
long intervals through a primary circuit of negligible self-in¬
duction and resistance, thus producing current impulses v.hich would
sometimes reach, at least theoretically, maximum values of as much
as 100.000 amperes. A high maximum rate of change in the primary
f .
current was thus producible, but, nevertheless, the average rate of
change was still small. Considering again the mechanical analogue
before mentioned a valuable lesson is at once derived. Looking
upon the weighted spring as an appliance for converting energy,
both economy'and output demand that the vibration of the spring
should peirs 1st. as long, as possible and that the blows should be
struck as often as it is practicable. To satisfy this twofold re-
qi i rement the blows must of necessity be delivered while the
(30)
spring is^vib rat ir.g, and now it becomes most important to properly
time the blows. Similarly again, in the electro-magnetic system
the circuit controller must operate at definite intervals of time
in order to secure the most vigorous vibration with the least sup¬
ply of energy. In the construction of practical instruments the
number of the fundamental current impulses is arbitrarily adopted,
the condenser, being prepared by a special process, cannot be ad¬
justed without great inconvenience, and the size and to a certain
extent also the turns of the primary coil are likev/ise determined
beforehanc|from practical considerations. Furthermore, it is de¬
sirable, for reasons of economy, not to resort to an otherwise con¬
venient method of adjustment, which would be to insert a variable
self-induction in series with the primary coil. These conditions
render more difficult the exact adjustment of the various quanti¬
ties, and 1 have sometimes found it of advantage to adopt one or
other plan, such as will readily suggest themselves. For example,
I have used an additional coil wound upon the primary and connected
in parallel to the same, or 1 have completed the adjustments by de¬
termining properly the self-induction and capacity of the secondsry 5 *^
In order to facilitate the observation and also to enable
the exact determira tion of the oscillations of electro-magnetic
systems as well as of vibrations or revolutions of mechanical de¬
vices, such as the circuit controller^ used in connection, it was
recognized as indi spensable, in the course of these investigations
(31)
only during a short interval of time when the plunger v/a s passing
through the center of vibration, and the oscillations of the elec¬
tro-magnetic system, composed of the condenser and generating coil,
being properly determined so that fundamental resonance took place,
it was found that, under such conditions, the electro-magnetic ..
system entirely governed the vibrations of the plunger and that the
variations of the applied pressure, while capable of producing
changes in the amplitude, were within very wide limits without any
appreciable effect on the period of vibration of the mechanical
system, the currents generated being therefore of rigorously con¬
stant period. The currents thus obtained were then utilized in a
number of ways to produce uniform rotation.
Another way to reach the same result and in a more prac¬
tical manner was to generate currents of differing phase by a steam
engine of special design, in which the reciprocating motion of the
work performing plungers and attached magnetic cores or coils was
controlled by a freely oscillating slide valve, the period of which
was maintained constant by mechanical means or by the use of an
electro-magnetic system, similarly as before. A synchronous alter¬
nating motor operated by the two or three phase currents thus
• a
generated rotated with iso': unifora^velocity as to drive the
wheel-work of a clock with fair accuracy.
Still other solutions of the problems referred to 1 may
mention which, though less satisfactory, have proved sometimes con-
1 determined
to construct a proper apparatus for such purposes,
from the outset to avail myself of what is known as visual synchro¬
nism. In this scheme usually a disk or cylinder vrith marks or di¬
visions, which is rotated with uniform veloci ty, is illuminated by
a periodically varying or intermittent source of light, the divi-
r. s ,p'a&£—
sions appearing stationary^when the revolutions of the disk are
synchronous with the variations in intensity or internittences of
the light-giving source. The diief virtue of such a method evi¬
dently resides in the uniformity of the velocity of rotation or
\
eventually in the constancy of the. period of the vibration produced,
Having been early confronted with the problem of rotating a body
with rigorously uniform velocity, vh ich is required in many, instan¬
ces, or with the similar problem of producing a vibration of con¬
stant period, 1 have devoted s ome>*ru^^to the study of this sub¬
ject, and in the course of time several solutions, more or less
practical and satisfactory, have presented themselves.
One of these, for instance, was to produce by means of
compressed air or steam, the vibration of a freely movable plunger
to •vhioh was rigidly connected a coil or core of an electric gen¬
erator. By the reciprocating motion of the plunger alternating
currents were generated which were passed throu^i a condenser or
else through the primary of a transformer, in which case the secon¬
dary coil of the latter was Joined to the terminals of the conden¬
ser. Care being taken that the air or steam pressure was applied
(32)
venient and sufficient for man;' purposes. For exa^le, a direct
current motor with-laminated fields or v/i thout eh y iron, was con¬
nected in series with a condenser through a commutator or inter-
^ar ma ture.^
rupter fastened on the shaft of a lighV'this device was so con¬
structed that it alternately closed and opened the terminals of the
condenser, as usual in the instruments before described. The con¬
denser terminals being closed, a strong current impulse passed
through the motor, and upon the terminals being opened the dis¬
charge current of high tension rushed into the condenser. But the
energy and duration of both of these succeeding current impulses,
and consequently of all which passed through the motor, were made
chiefly dependent on the self-induction of the motor coils and on
the capacity of the condenser, and were therefore, with certain
little
limits of variation of the applied electro-motive force, ^depen¬
dent on the latter, and consequently a motor with a negligible
nearly
friction loss, operated in this manner, turned wi th v uni form veloci¬
ty. The latter ’ was the more nearly constant the greater the con¬
trolling influence of the electro-magnetic system which, of course,
was the most complete when the number of current impulses, the ca¬
pacity and self-induction were so adjusted that fundamental reso¬
nance was maintained. As before stated, in (post of these novel in¬
struments described, such adjustments are observed and, whether pro¬
vided with rotating interrupters or circuit controlling springs,
theypartake more or less of the virtue of the preceding principle.
(34)
For this reason the contact springs in these instruments do not
fall into harmonics, as they often do in ordinary induction coils
operated from supply circuits, where the physical constants are
generally such that similar adjustments are impracticable.
It should be remarked that, since a long time, it was
known that a direct current motor, driven with currents interrupted
at regular intervals, shows a marked tendency to maintaining a con-
by
stant speed, but^the introduction of a condenser in the circuit
and the careful adjustment of the quantities this tendency is very
much increased, and for many purposes a sufficiently uniform velo¬
city may be obtained in this manner. Instead of using interrupted
currents for operating the motor it is practicable to rotate a
separate coil, wound either on the same or on a second armature,
and to pass the alternating currents generated in this coil through
the condenser. It is important for the attainment of a satisfacto¬
ry result in such cases to determine the constants so that the
amound of energy stored in' the condenser should be as large as
possible.
While a number of such arrangements were readily avail¬
able, it was found, nevertheless, that the.- were inadequate to the
many different requirements of the laboratory, and accordingly an
instrument was devised which is illustrated in fig. 13 ab. It
has proved itself to be so necessary and valuable an implement in
experimental investigations, that its description here may afford
(35)
useful information. The cut is intended to show a substantial and
carefully constructed clock-mechanism with the usual escapement e,
gearwheels ggg, and a one second pendulum P. A small shaft s,
carrying a disk D of large diameter, was geared to the clockwork
through a pinion p of a proper number of teeth, such as to give to
the shaft a velocity best suitable for observations. Now, in order
to. rotate the disk with a uniform velocity, some difficulties, well
known to clockmakers, had to be overcome. The chief of these is
due to the fact that the rotation of the shaft s, being controlled
by the escapement e, which, at regular intervals, retards-the
the train of wheels ggg, is not effected with uniform, but periodi¬
cally varying velocity, which may have all values from zero to a
maximum, dependent or. the driving weight W. Owing to this circum
stance, when such a disk D of large diameter is rigidly geared to
any kind of clockwork, it exerts, by reason of the great momentum
"hich it necessarily acquires, a strong reaction upon the pendulum,
altering the period of the same more or less, according to the mo¬
mentum it possesses. This difficulty is known to exist, even in
cases in which the step by step movement is tactically done away
with, as, for instance, in clockworks with centrifugal governors,
or circular pendulums, in which slow oscillations are produced by
the reaction of the moving mass upon the regulating mechanism.
Some clockmakers have proposed an elastic connection between the
(36)
body driven and the escapement, but this does not away radically
with the difficulty. On the other hand when, in an attempt to
overcome this disadvantage of the step by step movement, a quick
acting escapement is used, whereby the periods of rest are reduced,
and consequently the influence of the momentum of the rotated body
upon the period of the pendulum, the result aimed at is but imper¬
fectly attained and, besides, such an apparatus is less suitable
for observation. Namely, it will be recognized as desirable for
a number of reasons, that the disk D should be rotated normally
either once or twice a second, according to whether a one or one
half second pendulum is used. This being the case the experimenter
can render himself easily an account of the constancy of the speed
by observing a mark m on the disk and noting that it occupies a
fixed position in space, relatively to that of the pendulum, in a
convenient phase of vibration. Furthermore, the computation of the
vibrations is rendered simpler and more convenient under such con¬
ditions.
The problem clearly put was then, to rotate a body as the
disk D, or other body, with any desired but uniform velocity in a
way such, that the period of vibration of the pendulum was not much
affected, even though the body rotated possessed considerable mo¬
mentum. An entirely satisfactory solution of this problem was ar¬
rived at in the following manner. On the end of the shaft s, fig.
13 b, was fastened a light metal piece f in the shape of a cross,
( 37 )
carrying on two of its opposite sides pivoted pawls p, and on
the other two light steel springs r, rwhich pressed the pawls
gently against the periphery of ‘a. washer w, which was provided
with many very fine teeth or serrations cut sideways,: similarly to
those of escapement wheels. The washer w was arranged to turn very
freely on the shaft s, and to i t was fastened the disk D. The
pawls p/ px were made with sharp edges to fit in the serrations of
the washer w, and by these means the disk could rotate freely on
the shaft s in the direction indicated by the arrows, but its rota¬
tion in the opposite direction was prevented by the pawls.
The operation of the apparatus will now be at once under¬
stood. On the start the escapement wheel e,was released by un¬
screwing the thumb screw t and shifting the sleeve S on its rocking
support. The pendulum was next started and when the escapement
wheal had attained the normal velocity, the sleeve S was slipped
back quickly and fastened, control of the escapement wheel being
thus given to the pendulum. The wheelwork and also the shaft s now
moved wi th periodically varying velocity, but the disk D continued
9
to move uniformly, the pawls p 7 pa slipping on the periphery of the
washer w during the periods when the revolution of the shaft s was
retarded by the pendulum. When, however, after some time, owing
.to the very small but unavoidable friction loss in the air and
bearings the speed of the disk would slowly diminish and fall below
the maximum velocity which the shaft s was capable of imparting
( 38 )
to it, then the pawls would r;i ve it a slight impulse, and in this
manner the disk was kept constantly- at the maximum velocity. By
each swing of the pendulum the disk would thus receive one impulse,
and its velocity depended on the amount of energy imparted to it by
each of the succeeding impulses. This amount of energy depended,
of course, on the velocity of the shaft s during the period when
the escapement wheel was free, and since this velocity was deter¬
mined by the driving weight, the speed of the rotation of the disk
could be varied within certain limits by adjusting the weight. It
will be observed that, generally, the disk would rotate considerab¬
ly faster than the shaft s, but it was easy to adjust the driving
weighs so that the disk rotated just once by one swing of the pen¬
dulum. In producing the rotation by these means the influence of
the momentum, of the disk upon the period of the pendulum is found
negligible. ■‘■his result, of course, could not be attained by con¬
necting the disk rigidly with the shaft s, even if a quick acting
escapement would be used, as before suggested. The uniformity of
rotation secured in this way leaves, for all practical purposes at
ieast, nothing to be desired. The apparatus might have been improv¬
ed by supporting the disk on an independent bearing and, perhaps,
also by rotating it horizontally in a Jewelled support. But the
friction loss was very small, since, by arresting the shaft s sud¬
denly, the disk would generally rotate something like one hundred
^-imes or more before stopping, and such improvements were thought
(39j
unnecessary. The vertical position was, however, chosen,because it
was much more convenient for purposes of observation. In order to
reduce the weight of the disk D as much as possible, a li^ht frame,
consisting of a circular rim with narrow spokes, was cut out of
thin aluminum sheet, and black paper glued on the frame, all marks
and divisions of the former being, of course, white. I found it
convenient to draw concentric circles with a number of marks such
that all vibrations within the range of the apparatus could be read
off. In addition a segmental piece of hard rubber N, supported on
a bar T and properly marked, was used to read fractions or, respec¬
tively, take corrections for any' irregularity in the rotation dur¬
ing a prolonged period of time. Near the disk was placed a vacuum
tube or, in its place, an adjustable spark gap 1, which was connec¬
ted to the secondary of a small transformer, the primary of which
was positively controlled by the mechanical or electro-magnetic
system the vibrations of which were to be determined. In preparing
a spring of the desired period of vibration for one of the instru¬
ments described, for instance, the spring was provisorily mounted
on the instrument and the latter put in operation. The disk, in¬
termittently illuminated by the discharges of the secondary coil,
was released from the pendulum and rotated until synchronism was
attained, the revolutions being computed by observing the white
mark m. The constants of the spring were then modified after a
( 40 )
simple calculation from the first result, and in the second trial,
as a rule, the vibration was so close as to enable the use of the
escapement, the adjustment then being completed, generally by al¬
tering the weight of the hammer on the spring until the marks on
the disk, by the normal speed of rotation, appeared stationary in
sp ace.
The apparatus described in fig. 13 will be found very
convenient and time-saving in a great many lines of experimenta¬
tion. By means of the same it is practicable to rotate a body of
considerable weight with uniform and adjustable velocity, and it
lends itself to the operation of circuit controllers, curve-tracers
and all kinds of such devices. It will be found most useful in
tracing current or electro-motive force curves and a variety of
diagrams, and will afford material help in determining a number of
physical quantities. But its most valuable use in the investiga¬
tion of electrical vibrations is, perhaps, for the purpose of de¬
termining exactly the angular velocities of dynamos, particularly
of alternators. Among the various quantities which, in alternate
current experimentation and practice, one has to determine very fre-
- J
quently, there are some* which, even in a laboratory or shop in the
midst of the disturbances of a city or factory can be ascertained
with sufficient precision, while there are others which can be only
approximated, particularly if, as is very often the case, practical
methods of measure must be resorted to. So, for example, the close
measurement of resistances offers no difficulty, nor does that of
t A -I 1
currents and electro-motive forces, although the degree of exact-
but
itude is necessarily smallerj^in determining capacities one is
liable to make a considerable error, still a greater one in measur¬
ing inductances, and probably the greatest in estimating frequen¬
cies. In many places such crude devices as speed counters or tachy-
meters are still resorted to, and the experimenter is disappointed
to realize that the accuracy of his long and painstaking tests is
impaired because of his inability to determine exactly the fre¬
quency. To make matters vorsq very often too, the latter is the
largest and most important quantity. In view of these facts a de¬
scription of the method adopted by me for the determination of an¬
gular velocities may be of some value.
The devices commonly used are illustrated diegramatically
in fig. 14, a and b. On the shaft S (fig. 14 a) of the generator is
fastened a commutator or circuit controller C, provided'wit h any
suitable number of segments, eight being shown in this instance.
Pour of these, 1, 3, 5 and 7 serve to establish the connections of
the circuits, while the intermediate ones, 2, 4, 6 and 8 are en¬
tirely insulated idle segments. Assuming the generator to be an al¬
ternate current machine, the terminals t, t ^ of the armature wind¬
ing, or of any desired coil or part of the same, are led through
the hollov/ shaft, as may be the case, and connected to the diametri¬
cally opposite segments 3 and 7, while the segments situated at
right angles, that is 1 and 5, are connected together
( 42 )
Two brushes b, b *,
through a wire w of in pprecinble resistance,
suoported in an ordinary holder allowing i.heir being shifted in an^
position, are arranged to bear upon the periphery of the controller
C. These brushes are connected to a circuit comprising a condenser
c of proper capacity and a primary coil p, which has but a few
turns of very small sel f-indue t ion and resistance and is joined in
series with the condenser.
The operation of the devices is as in the instruments be¬
fore referred to. When, with the rotation of the shaft S, the
brushes b, bj are brought in contact with the segments 1 and 3, the
condenser is charged to a potential which can be adjusted at v/ill
by shifting the brush holder. The oond enser retains a car tain
b, b A
charge until the brushes'^one to bear upon the connected segments
1 and 5, whereupon an oscillatory discharge through the primary p
takes place with the result of inducing strong current impulses
in the secondary s, which momentarily light up the vacuum tube
(Whi ch is ^
or spark gap 1 placed in proximity of the disk D, rotated wi-h uni¬
form velocity, as before described. With the rotation of the cir¬
cuit controller the brushes are again brought in contact with the
segments 1 and 3, and the operations are repeated,at each complete
revolution of the armature shaft a definite number of impulses
being passed through the vacuum tube or spark gap. In the device
illustrated there will be only two impulses for each revolution
of the armature, but any greater number may be arranged for by
( 43 )
the
augmenting the number o f ^segments and c on^ec tin.- t^e^ in the same
manner. It should be stated that the current impulses, which pass
into the condenser whenever the brushes b, b A are on those segments
which are connected to the armature coil, ordinarily produce no ap¬
preciable effect ir. the secondary s. This might be the case if the
then
number of segments would be very large and would v be at once noted.
The proper adjustment of the circuit through which the condenser
p f course,^ ,
discharges is, preferable but not absolutely necessary.
When it is inconvenient to use the armature current, as
i
illustrated in fig. 14 a, then the controller C is provided with
two sliding rings r, r*(fig. 14 b), upon which are made to bear
tv/o additional brushes bj by:. The latter are then connected to a
preferably
direct current source, as the ordinary supply circuit, ^through a
self-induction coil, which serves to charge the condenser to a
higher potential. The rings r, r^ merely ssrxsx** convey to the
segments 1 and 3 the current for charging the condenser, otherwise
nothing need be changed on the devices.
The marks or divisions on the periphery of the disk D are
suitably made so that by the normal speed of the generator they ap¬
pear stationaiy in space. This being the case the speed may be at
once and easily computed from the number of segments on the con-
from
troller and that of divisions on the disk and^the speed of the lat-
currents
ter. The frequency of the dynamo'is then given by taking into con¬
sideration the number of poles.
In availing himself of this method the experimenter can
( 44 )
get the accurate value for the angular velocity, no matter how much
the speed of the dynamo may vary, if he only takes the precaution
to make his readings for electro-motive force, current, etc. at the
instant the marks on the disk are stationary. Should the reading
consume more time it is easy to take the correction for any varia¬
tion by simply observing, with reference to a fixed line on the
rubber piece N, the number of divisions which are to be added to, or
deducted from, the speed of the disk.
( 45 )
J^lfr 4.
Jttr 7.
rr-
Fig. 13 cut
CONFIDENTIAL
COLORADO SPRINGS
DIARY
OF
NIKOLA TESLA
1399 - 1900
TRANSLATED & TRANSCRIBED
INTO ENGLISH FROM
CROATIAN "
TRANSLATION “FROM ORIGINAL
HAND-WRITTEN
NOTES
BY
WINNIPEG ENERGY RESEARCH
GROUP INC.
Translation Copyright Feb. 1978 Winnipeg Energy Research Group Inc.
1
Notes from Colorado Springs June 1-30, 1899
To these two applications have to be added, which I noted at Curtis, and
some other material for patents, mainly foreign.
p. 25 June 1, 1899
It seems that the following plan is the best for the design of small
batteries of very high emf, which are required to excite the vacuum tube
of a telegraph receiver. For exciting the tube, a very small amount of
current is necessary and that small amount of current could be produced
by a battery.
CciaEcTICH
RUSP> 6R ,
Rob
%
1ft
CONHECTlort
From previous experiments it*could be seen that a current of 1/20^000
amp is quite'sufficient. The approximate box dimensions—1/4 ft. The
expenditures wouldn't'be too high. Metzl containers, covers and carbon rods
could be easily obtained.
Receiver connections are the same as at the New York experiment: if
necessary, the resistor R. will be used to get the tube to the flashover state.
It is very important, as with all the sensitive devices which have been used sc
far, that the dielectric is stressed exactly to the point of flashover.
!
2
The Magnet M has to have the resistance approx.•equal to the internal
battery resistance to get the highest efficiency. A 1,000 ohms relay will
be suitable. The magnet has to be powerful to extinguish the tube when it
is lit. This device will have to be sensitive to the point of providing
the flashover with a very small current which is sent through the ground by
means of an oscillator connected in a similar manner.
P. 26
June 2/1899
Signal technique
with useful
caoacitor methods
Telegraphy
Protection
f Ships
Mainlands
< Cables (this particular,
i but very powerful apparatus
is required) .
f Against ship collisions
s Against ship collisions with
k -bergs.
Research
Measurements, etc.
Originated from
live beams
from plants
Electricity
Disturbances which /Magnetism
originate from Static
ground Atmospheric Electricity
4 Ground Current
Sun influences, and so on
The location of f Magnetic
layers 1 Non magnetic
In relationships to x-rays, other by repelling
rays and dark sun rays.
^ Most important
Resistance, current, emf, and so on
Intensity, light, heat and so on
Measuring
Instruments
Power
Current
Integrators of all types
3
p. 27 June 3, 1899
Various principle modifications which consist of energy accumulation of weak
impulses received from a distance and the use of amplified action for
the operation of a receiving device. Several methods for the achievement of
this generally consist of the following:
Resonance
Capacitor
Magnet
4
p. 28 June 4, 1899
Wireless telephone system
General remarks:
Transmitters
Receivers
The types of
energy in
transmitters
with one impulse
with more than 1 \
. i
impulse J
>
with more than 1
impulse ;
with one impulse ,
For each telephone
impulse
For each telephone
impulse
Electrostatic action
Current Action
S
rays
light
thermal
energy
x-rays that act
and so on on the
receiver
Electrostatic
Attraction & repulsion
j Action of 2 circuits
; Magnetic
Types of ^ Cathode rays
Thermal rays
Light rays
Mechanical
Magnetic Action
Sound Action
Cathode Action
Deflection by
mechanical moving mechai
f Electrostatic machine
Induction coil
The Instruments
which will be
used
'l
With one
output
.■terminal
\-!
Oscillator i.
Receivers
instruments
for various
transmitters
with 2
output terminals
which have to
be made
Batteries
Generators
(high frequency)
| AC excitation
: DC excitation
Capacitor
{
Rheostat machine
Oscillator
!
To make up schematics of electrical circuits and so on
5
P, 29 June 5, 1899
Induction method, the results for the device which will be used are
calculated based on the equation:
M = p s VJpV^ /32 DS^ (this equation is very doubtful)
M = power in secondary or primary circuit
4
p = 2 7T n estimated at 40,000 = 4 x 10
s = length of one side of the square circuit = 1,200
Wp = power spent in the primary = 4 x 10 ergs (assumed)
3 3
V = total wire volume in both circuits = 25 x 10 cm
D = Distance of circuit center to center (horizontally)
S = Specific wire resistance 1.7 x 10
If we take into account that that must be at least 0.3 erg because of the
relay action, we will find that with the above electrical circuits under
such conditions, it is possible to achieve simple transmission of
approximately one mile. With circuits of 1,000 m^ in the area the same
achievement could be successful at the distance of 30 miles. From here
on the inferiority of the induction methods seems to be large in comparison
to the load disturbance of ground and air methods.
June 6 , 1899^
V
Device with mono-anode tube for the purpose of producing intensive rays.
Because there are practically no limits in oscillator power, there is now
a problem of how to make a tube which would withstand every desirable
voltage. The tubes made in New York were made with aluminum covers, or
without them, but in both cases there was a voltage limit and therefore only
a small portion of the obtained emf could have been used. The glass^
bottom would be broken by the electrical discharge, and when an aluminum
cover was used arcing occurred in the cover direction. Submersion in
oil or any other liquids is unsuitable. The best result will probably be
achieved with electrostatic protection of the sensitive portions of the
tube. This idea was followed on numerous experiments. Now testing is
proposed of the devices shown below:
6
P. 30
Certainly it is necessary that the insulation body has the distributed
capacitance in such a manner as to prevent the current streamers occurrence.
The capacitance has to be such as to create the maximum emf at the open termina.
June 7, 1899
The approximate estimate of the number of primary turns which has to be
used in the experimental station:
" Ls = ttUa (log 8A - 2) + 2a (log 8A - 5 ) - a^_ C 2 log 8A + 19)]
L. e T e a 4 16A a
Here A designates the radius of the circle = 25 ft. = 300 in. = 762 cm
a designates the radius of the conductor of 13/32 in. = 1.03 cm.
8A/a = 5919 ; log 8A = 3.772248 x 2.3 = 8.6762
a
4A = 3048 2a = 2.06 a 2 = 1,061 16A = 12,192
Ls — ir \ 3048 x (8.6762 - 2) + 2.06 x (8.6762 - 1.25) - 1.061 x (17.3524 + 19)]
L 12,192
Since the last sum is negligable we will have
Ls = 3.1416 x (3048 x 6.6762 + 2.06 x 7.4262)
= 63,976.67 cm or approx. 63,900 cm.
Two windings in series will have approx. 255,600 cm.
7
Jane 7,1899.
The approx, estimate of primary turn inductance used in the New York
■experimental oscillator on a vertical frame.
Turn diameter = 8 ft. = 240 cm. This gives A = 122 cm.
Conductor diameter = 13/16'
a = 13/32 x 2.54 = 1 cm. approx.
8A = 976 log 8A = 2.98945 x 2.3 = 6.875735
a a
a 2 = 1 4A = 488 16A = 1952
L = 7T 4A (log 8A - 2) + 2a (log 8A - 5 ) - a^ (2 log 8A +19)
L e T* e a 4 16A a .
= TT (488 x 4.875735 + 11.2515 - small portion)
L = 3.1416 x 2390.6115 = 7210.345 cm.
This will be a little higher if the terminals are sufficiently close,
approx. 8,000 cm. _ • .x- x.
June 8, 1899
The method and device for the purpose of determining self-inductance and
capacitance,-particularly suitable for determining small inductances,
Because the resistance could not be neglected when the frequency of the
current is high, the inductances could be compared as follows:
The self-inductance standard is equipped with a sliding contact to make
the number of turns variable as desired.
8
'/tRy
nifcH
FftfiJotNCy'
CuS-REnr
Jxsvuct
Two resistors are connected in a bridge arrangement and they are.
adjusted according to the high frequency current source and the inductive
coil which is measured. Two opposite points, of which one is movable,
are connected with the telephone ear phone. When no sound could be heard,
the two indictances—the one we measure and the corresponding portion of
the standard, are balanced or when the ear phone is silent, they are
Dractically equal, if their values are suitably chosen.
With the inductances so determined, the capacitance could be
easily measured on this basis. It is possible to omit high the frequency
source and use a very fast capacitor discharge instead. Auxiliary resistors
have to be determined so that the resistances in two branches through which
current is divided are equal or at least approximately equal.
p. 32 ' June 9, 1899
The purpose of the next experiment is to check whether it is practical to
use an air cylinder or a cylinder filled with some other gas, as a detector
of electrical disturbances at a distance. That would be based on the
principle of the RIS thermometer as it was experimented with in New York.
The schematic of the device is shown in the figure below. There is a
reservoir V, preferably with a smooth and shiny mirror like surface to
reflect the rays into the center. There is a r.esistor R of small mass
in this reservoir. That resistor could be conveniently achieved by
connecting pencil tracks mm by means of two'terminals T & ^ which
are supported by glass plate P. The mass has to be small in order
to achieve a temperature rise of the pencil track by means of a very small
current, or conductors and that way the air in the reservoir is heated.
10
Let's assume that the tube is 1/10 mm in diameter and 10 meters long
P. 33
Each resistance will approximately 1000 ohms.
Then RI 2 = 1000 I 2 = 1/10, if we accept that the supplied energy « 1 erg '
this gives I2 = 1/1 0 10 or I = 1/10* amp. The column in the tube w 1
expand for 1 degree: 0.00018 x 10 = 0.0018 meters or 0.18 cm. or 1.8 mm.
The cylinder volume will be 0.01 x 10.000 - 100 mm or 0.1 cm
_ 'mo maqq will amount to 0.00136/9.81
That will weigh 0.1 X 13.6 - 1.36 would neea 41,600,000
how, if the temperature would bey is 0.0319 there will be
erg per gram. As the specific heat of mercury necessary.
41,600,000 + 320/10,000 = 41,600 x 32 = approx. 1,330,000 ergs necess y
This indicates that for the above assumptions, the indications of electrical
disturbances by means of a mercury column would not be efficient, unless
could be made much thinner.
Vt«-< -TH'rt MCR CLIK'I c -° Lo ' 1rl
,«SULA.TtD
Bot>y
COKTACT
fcf COlOf-lfJ CtPAKSIoM
Rll-M FUSlVToR
p_ 33 June 11, 1899
The following method and device, for detecting weah signals
through a media, seem particularly suitable for-
was tested in New Tort, but the --Its were no t ““ho^, below,
the experiments will be performed with the device cn
11
The basic idea is to establish a current circuit, the resistance of which
will be reduced when the current flows through it and its mass will be as
small as possible. The specific heat of the material from which the circuit
is made has to be as small as possible as well. The best way I discovered
so far is to make a track with a pencil which is of the necessary thickness
and connect that track to terminals. The measured track is of high resistance
This conductor I connected with one end to the ground and the other to the
elevated body with a large surface. The conductor is then connected within
a circuit which consists of relays and batteries, which are suitably chosen
and connected, for example, as on the above diagram.
P. 34
When a weak imoulse gets through, it will reduce the carbon resistance so '
that more current will flow from the battery and activate the relay. Tnen
the relay, by any suitable method will interrupt the battery current, and.
the normal mode of operation is re-established. Only, the relay could be
used for current interruption or the auxiliary magnet if used as shown.
This carbon track could be connected as a bridge in order to increase
the sensitivity.
(This has to be continued)
June 12, 1899
A suitable method for achieving a conductor (that is desired to be poor) of
small mass which is instantly evaporated or destroyed by the influence o_
the current from the battery, but which could be recovered very simply
and automatically, consists of the following:
Two terminals are attached to an insulating plate, preferably made from
glass, and then the plate is coated by a thin layer of poor conductive
so the terminals are bridged and form a path for the current flow.
materia
The best method to materialize this idea is as follows
A certain amount of iodine is placed in a small bottle with a cork througn
which two terminals protrude. The bottle is kept, by a suitable method
at such a temperature that the substance is deposited as a very thin
layer to enable current to flow from the battery through the relay. Then
12
high current could be achieved by suitable connection of the relay
whereby the iodine layer would be destroyed and the terminals are isolated
in that manner. This process is repeated at the desirable speed. Such
a layer could be used to detect weak telegraph impulses through the
media, in which case it is necessary to connect the capacitance to the
ground also.
June 13, 1899
Transmitting device schematic for a long distan'ce wireless telephone
system. The most difficult part is in the practical problem solution,
that is the powerful device control with the weak signals which could be
produced by the human voice.
One of the best methods is the use of carbon contacts as in a microphone,
but then as in this case, high currents or high emf have to be used and
that creates considerable difficulties.
The solution I described earlier is given in the shown schematic. S is
a current source, the best is a dc current source, as for example, a
powerful battery or dynamo. C is a capacitor connected to primary p,.
and d-is the interruptor commonly used in oscillator. Interruptor d is
made so that resonance is achieved at a certain number of interruptions.
P. 35
Secondary winding s is connected to the ground and to the insulated,
body, of certain capacitance, which is elevated to a certain elevation
as shown, and the adjustment is such that the secondary winding with its
capacitance and self-inductance is in the reasonance with primary circui
p. Two contacts cc are connected in parallel with a portion of t e
13
primary. The mentioned contacts are made of carbon. Normally the
carbons touch each other very slightly but while talking towards funnel
f they will harmonically make better contact, the primary current is
changed, the resonance is spoiled and the effect in the secondary circuit
is rhythmetically reduced by the voice vibration. In this manner, very
small contact resistance variances will produce large viariations in
transmitted waves intensity. The number of interruptions of interruptor d
has to be considerably above the voice vibration (amplitude modulation).
June 14, 1899
The following device, which was considered in general previously, seems
to be particularly suitable for long distance wireless telephone system
since for those applications, as well, it is necessary to achieve powerful
device control with weak signals, for example, as those produced by a
human voice. The idea is to use an ordinary oscillator, supplied from
a source of dc current, with an interruptor (mercury or ordinary arcing gap
device) which has a much higher frequency than the vibrations of a human
voice.
n IK9.TH
Obviously there has to be an electric arc, either in the primary or in
the secondary which can be extinguished, or its resistance can be
substantially increased in rhythm with the vibrations caused by a human
14
voice or in some other way, as may be the case.
P. 36
The control of the electric arc is achieved by a stream of air or some
other gas, which emerges under pressure from the opening, the size of
which is adjusted by a suitable method using the vibrations. The schematic
of such a device is shown in the figure, with the electric arc control
placed in the secondary circuit. The source of dc current S charges
the capacitor C, and its discharge interruptor (with high number of
interruptions) d and primary p excites secondary s, which has a commonly
used connection for telegraphy, what I already achieved earlier. Air or
gas under pressure is controlled by the diaphragm and valve v. The
output tube t could be advanced towards the diaphragm as much as necessary
to achieve the best result. In this manner or by some modified method
it is possible to control a powerful device with weak vibrations produced
by the human voice.
June 15, 1899 .
Today our first experiments have been performed in the station. The
supply transformer emf was only 200 volts. The interruptor on the disk,
driven by Kroker-Wileroy motor, has the frequency between 800 and 1200
interruptions per second. .. It was found that (omega) amounted to
approximately 800. Under these conditions, the secondary of the high
voltage transformer from New York, could charge only three to four jars,
and it was impossible to achieve anything more than harmonic,vibrations
in the oscillator secondary circuit. Many more jars are therefore
required.
The secondary was wound on a cone shaped core with 14 turns and an
approximate mean length of 130 ft. The primary was made from one cable
winding which was used in New York lab, for the same purpose, and consisted
of 37 conductors of No. 9 rubber insulated. The design details I will
describe later on.
Remark: Sparks were moving across the lightning arrestors instead of
into the ground. Due to that, it was necessary to change to connections
to the ground, by separating the oscillator secondary from the lightning
arrestor grounding. By connecting the secondary to a water pipe and
placing the grounding of the lightning arrestor or protector, as earlier,
the sparks disappeared. This indicates that lightning protectors or
arrestors were poorly grounded. The latter operated exceptionally good.
The grounding was achieved by burying a gas pipe to about 12 ft. and
around it carbon briquettes are placed. That is how this is usually
done here. The power which has been applied in the first experiments
was very small—only 1/2 to 3/4 hp. The spark on the secondary was 5"
long, thick and loud. This indicates considerable amount of capacitance in
the secondary circuit. The change of spark length in the interruptor
15
did not cause any particular change. The weather was stormy, it was
raining and lightning.
June 16, 1899
The experiments were continued today. Grounding was provided by digging
the hole 12 ft. deep and by placing a 20" x 20" copper plate at the
bottom covered again by carbon briquettes as usual. The ground was
continuously watered to improve.the conductivity, but dispite all that,
the conductivity was really bad.
P. 37
It is obvious that rocky and dry ground was the reason for this, and I
think, that many damages caused by lightning could be explained on the
basis of bad grounding conditions. By continuous watering the ground,
the resistance between the grounding plate and water pipe system was
reduced to 14 ohms. Repeating my connections between the grounding
plate and the water pipe system, caused the sparks again to arc across
the lightning protector. When the connection with the water pipe system
was disconnected, these sparks disappeared again. The action of the
waves which propagate through the ground was tested by means of the
sensitive device, which I will describe later, and a very powerful
vibration was discovered in the ground below and around the laboratory.
Intentionally the sensitivity of the device was reduced to perform the
comparison with previous similar experiences. The device did not react • .
when positioned in the vicinity of the oscillator, without the ground
connection or capacitance, but it reacted at 200 ft. from the laboratory
when connected with one .terminal to the ground. 'Also, it reacted along
the entire water pipe system, as far as it was possible to reach, although
there was a very good ground connection. The influence on the device
was powerful even when the arcing on the secondary terminals did not
occur! This.is a very good indication for researching standing waves in
the ground. I concluded that the ground resistance was not too high.
It is likely that the ground influences the primary and secondary more
than was assumed on the basis of the influence caused by induced currents.
(This has to be tested).
June 17, 1899
The measurement of resistance between the grounding conductor and the
water pipes indicated a surprising value of 2960 ohms and after pouring water
for half an hour the resistance was still 2400 ohms, but then, after
continuous watering it started to drop very quickly. It is obvious that
the water was absorbed in the ground and as a rule it was very dry, and
therefore it was very difficult to achieve good grounding. This could
become a big problem. Grounds will have to be watered continuously.
High resistance explains the difficulties which lasted for several days
when trying to achieve the desirable secondary oscillations. The first
good ground obviously is where the water pipe which supplies the laboratory
is connected to the underground supply pipe, and that is several hundred
feet away. This increased the secondary wire length which then became too
16
long for 1/4 of the wave as was calculated. The closest connection to
the ground, according to measurements, was approximately 260 ft. away
but that was not certain.
The measurement of primary, secondary, and mutual inductance.
The data for two primary windings connected in series were as follows:
I = 34, E = 7, R = 0.015, W = 716, I =
"1 2 ~ 2 \
R + W L
By neglecting R we get WL = 0.206 and L — 287,000 cm (approx.)
P J?
P. 38
For a secondary with 14 turns on a coiled frame and with the turns mean
length value of 130 ft.
E = 57.7 E/I =4.57
I = 12.65
U)= 716
w 2 l 2 = 16.49 L s = 4/716 = 0.0056H (approx.)
= 20.98 wL = 4 (approx.) or = 5,600,000 cm (approx.)
R = 2.12 R = 4.49
The co-efficient of mutual inductance of two primary, turns in-series:
M = E
= 6 x 10 = 783,300 cm
to I -716 x 10.7
s
Ep = 6
Is = 10.7
u> = 716
This will reduce L. The reduction is estimated from
1 - = L (1 - M_) = Lx 0.64
N NL
June 18,1899.
The experiments with the oscillator were continued and showed that a suitable
oscillation does not obviously occur for some reason which has to be
explained. To find out where the disturbance originates, due to weak
induction from primary winding, the coil was wound on cylinder 30" in diameter
and 10" in length with 500 (approx.) turns of wire No. 26, which was used
in some experiments in New York. It was connected to one open secondary
terminal, with which amplification was achieved - and current streamers
of approx. 12" in length were obtained on the last turn, even at weak
secondary excitation. It seems that the disturbance occurs because of
internal capacitance. The total length of 1/4 of the wave for the coil
17
was approximately 2400 ft. , which corresponds with the calculation
performed on the basis of primary circuit vibration. The experiments with
this coil indicate the advantage of an additional coil, as I made it, and .
as I already noticed when experimenting in New York. In other words the coil
is practicaly not inductively linked, thus it is used only for the
purpose of increasing the inductive emf.
The secondary inductance measurement: the secondary was made of 12 turns
on a cone shaped core, with 1 1/4" distance from center to center of the
turns. The results were as follows:
The current through the secondary - 10.9
Emf at the terminals = 74V
co = 710
From here it was derived = 9,500,000 cm.
P. 39
Data for mutial inductance:
Current through the secondary = 10.9 A
emf on primary ( 1 turn) = 4.75
O) = 710
This gave K = E/l-T = 0.00062 H or 620,000 cm.
' - - - - - . " ' ' - ' • J. ' - . •
Compared with the first winding (14 separated turns) the second winding
was better due to larger self-inductance and higher co-efficient of
mutual, inductance.
The measurement of capacitance in sections:
Today the capacitor was compared with a standard of 1/2 mfd by means of the
wire bridge and telephone earphone as per Maxwell method. The capacitor
has SO sections, 40 at each side, so they could be connected as desired
by means of plugs.
Therefore, there are 1 + 2 +
2 + 5 + 10 + 20 + 30. = 80
sections in total. Measurement performed today by Mr. L. gave 0.153 mfd
per unit.
(This has to be checked)
June 19, 1899
A sensitive automatic device for receiving circuits of telegraph
signals through natural media, the purposes of adjustment and so on
device is shown in a simple shape in the figure below.
The
18
In small glass tube t two thin wires
ww made of soft iron or steel are
attached to platinum contact ends cc.
The coil S wound with wire surround
the tube t. The contact points are
of such shape that the wires could be
bent enough but at the same time such
that the separation is not too large.
When a current flows through coil S
wires ww separate and the distance
between contact ends cc is increased.
The tube is gradually discharged.
The dielectric between the ends is
stressed to very close to flashover
with sensitive powder and a battery
and when a signal enters the circuit
the dielectric will break down under
the increased voltage, so that the
current from the battery flows through
the coil s, separating the contact
ends and thereby interrupting the
battery current circuit. In this
case the series connection of contact ends cc, coil S and battery is
assumed, but the connection could also be made by other methods to
achieve the same result—i.e. automatic interruption after the signal is
received. Contact ends have to be very close to one another and pointed.
The separations PPP exist to limit the wire ww movement and to prevent
vibrations after each activation. On coil S the additional coil could
be placed for wire adjustment so that the ends are at a necessary smal
distance, which could be easily achieved by adjustment of the current
through an additional coil, and for the signal registration a circuit
could- be connected, in a suitable way, for an independent relay. The
qualify of the vacuum could be made variable. In the first device the coil
had 24 layers with 94 turns in each layer or 2256 turns in total made of ,21
wire. The resistance amounted to 14.7 ohms.
s
P. 41
June 20, 1899
The approximate estimate of some device characteristics. The capacitance
with new jars will be approximately 0.174 mfd with two capacitor groups m
series as usual. Under the assumption that the transformer supplies
20 kV, the energy per impulse will be 4 x 10 s x 0 .174_ - 34.8 watts,
2 x 106
roughly estimated.
If we assume 1600 discharges per second through the primary, the capacitors wi
output 34.8 x 1600 = 55,680 watts or somewhat more than 74 hp. Wit '
the capacitors will still output 74/4 = 18.5 hp. Vibration o e P
will approximately amount to:
19
T = 27T W 7 x 10 x 0174 = 2tT
3 V 9 5
10 f 10 10
[o. 7
x 0.174 = 2.2 or 22
10 '
10
this will give approximately n = 45,500 per sec. Such vibrations assume
only one turn in the primary.
The wave length is calculated to be approximately 4 miles or 21,120 and
A/4 = 5280 ft. As each turn has approximately 130 ft., we will need for
1/4 wavelength approximately 5280/130 = 40 turns. Or, if two primaries
in series are used with the same capacitance, then the wavelength will
be doubled, and therefore 80 turns are necessary. Let's say that 80
turns were used: the self-inductance of the secondary will not
be differ much from the value 165 x 10 6 cm
will be
-2-1
The period of the secondary circu
T 2]T
10 3
/
165 x 10 x 38
10 '
9 x 10'
By assuming there is no internal capacitance or that it was avoided by a
suitable design and that a sphere of 30" in diameter exists (or approximately
38 cm in radius) at the open terminal and on the secondary. Then will ave
T = 164/10 7 and N = 61,000 approximately.
But this vibration will not be in harmony with the primary vibration. In
order.-to achieve that, secondary self-inductance could be calculated.
We have.
T =
= 27r
45,500
38
1000 i' 9 x 10'
where L is the secondary inductance we want to calculate,
s
From here L = 10/32 H, or L = 312,500,000 cm. Let’s assume that the
s s
wire is wound on the same core and the length remains as previously--
the required number of turns could be obtained from the equation
165 x 10
312 x 10 b
= 6400 from here N - 12,102 and N 110 turn
n2~
20
P. 42
Besides the wire I have available, this will cost $250 but with 80 turns
it will cost only $100. to obtain the same secondary vibration, the
capacitance at the open terminal has to be increased. The required
capacitance- C will be:
/ " ~6 '
1 = 2 7T / 165 x 10 . C
9
45,000 1000 10
from here it follows that C = 67.3 cm. The sphere of such size should
not be used. By using a disk we will have 2r[rf= 67.3 or r - 56 cm. It
is difficult to believe that this could be used except at low voltages,
the leakage would be too large.
All these estimates, naturally, lead to an assumption that the secondary
distributed capacitance is somehow overcome, for example, by means of
capacitors in series. It is certain that the secondary circuit vibration
will be much slower.
June 21, 1899
Values and device characteristics were continuously considered. The
present supply transformers could supply 26 hp.
Let's assume the use of this energy, it is. 26 x 750 = 19,500 watts.as
well as 1,600 interruptions and capacitor charges per sec. That gives
for each interruption 19,500/1600 = 12 watts approximately. Let's
assume that the surplus of power would be added to this so that the
secondary would receive 12 watts net for each discharge m .the primary
circuit. That means that the capacitor at the end of the secondary will
be charged 1600 times per sec. to the potential p.
If C is tl;e. capacitance at the open terminal of the secondary, then we
will have'12 = (p 2 /2) C, and from here p 2 = 24/C. Let's take capacitance
C as the sphere of 38 cm. in radius. This will give,
24
38
p 2 = 9 x 10 11 x 24 and from this
38
P
9 x 10 11
3 x 10 5
3 x 10 5 x 2.51 = 753 kV
Approximate estimate of the primary voltage which is required to achieve
the above output power.
21
In order to achieve the minimum emf. it will be necessary to connect
both capacitor groups in parallel. This will provide capacitance of
O. 174 x 4 = 0.696 mfd. By designating with p^ the primary emf., which
is required for designated output power, we will have:
0.696 x p^ =12
2 x 10 6
P. 43
2 9
From here p^ = 10 /29 or p 1 = 6 kV approximately (at energy of 26 hp.
and
1600 interruptions per sec.).
At this emf., if we assume 4 ohms for electric arc resistance, the
initial current through the primary would have to be 1500 amps. With
these assumptions the loss in the primary could be calculated.
June 22,1899.
It is necessary to order a new secondary winding made of -rubber insulated
wire #10 B S, S, at Habirsoa, 11,000 ft. in total (more exactly 10,500').
That will be enough for 80 turns with mean length 131 ft. each.
: 2 2
#10 American standard or 5.26 mm or 5.26/645 m.
100 feet will have (5.26 x 1200)/645 = 9.8 in.
The weight of this, when taken into account 5.13 oz./in. , will
amount to
a ..
^5.13 " x 9.8 = 3.14 lb.
16
Therefore, 11,000 ft. will weight 345.4 lb. That means that there
will be less copper in the secondary than in the two primary turns.
With double conductors in the secondary, we will have 40 turns and with
4 times as many (for fast vibration) 20 turns. The copper weight will
remain the same and some of the #10 wire can be used for first lower
turns.
Some schematics were tested for the purpose of prolonging the vibration
in the primary circuit after each interruption. One of those is shown
in figure below.
22
HtC^ul-ATlUC. C-Oll
Capacitor C, was connected in parallel with primary P. As in this circuit,
there was no arcing device, the overvoltage factor was very high, while
the resistance was neglegible, vibration was maintained much longer aft.er
each interruption,' then would be the case if the usual wiring diagram is
used- The sharpness of adjustment is a very interesting event. It seems
that that originates from the fact that there are 2 circuits or 2 separated
vibrations which have to correspond to one another exactly. The sparks
were powerful at the secondary terminals wheever C = aC^, where a
is a whole number (not a fraction) and particularly when a - 2 or 4.
Such a connection was performed in New York with one of the latest oscillators
and the similar results were observed.
P. 44
By using this method and there*were losses in circuit p, because this
portion does not act on the secondary which is an inductive link wruh P.
The change was in having one or more primary P turns or independent turns
in circuit p. The mentioned turns acted inductively on the secondary.
One device which is intended for the same purpose was tested as well. It
consisted? of the-application of 2 primaries, of which one was independent
from the interruptor and bridged over by a capacitor, as shown on the
figure:
IrlTtRROPTtO.
n
23
This was tested in New York as well and it was found that the device is
good when the number of interruptions are small. When the interruptions
are fast, there is no difference. When adjusting, dpi was initially
adjusted to vibration CP and the secondary was adjusted afterwards.
This has to be continued.
June 23,1899.
» Approximate self-inductance of the regulating coil brought in from Mew
York which ought to be used in the primary circuit.
Dimensions: cylinder, diameter 12" = 30.48 cm.
.cylinder length 18" = 45.72 cm.
number of turns: 24
The area which will be enclosed by one turn
4
this we find L = 4 77 n S = 12.57 x 576 x 730
1 45.72
2 2
d = 730 cm . From
cm = 115,600 cm.
Therefore, for the approximate value we have 115,600/24 4800 cm/turn.
This will be too much because the turns are separated and thick. According
to Lanzvenovoj equation L g =
1
Here L is the total wire length, it is 30.5 x 3.1416 x 24 - 2300 cm. approx.
P. 45
2
This will give the value L' = (2300) /45.72
L' = 115,700 cm, obviously close to the previously
calculated value.
The experiments with the oscillator secondary with 36 1/2 turns were
continued. A number of modified schemes with auxiliary capacitor were
tested—one of those is shown in the figure below. All of these experiments
had the main purpose of prolonging the vibrations in the primary after
each interruption as well as achieving a sharper reasonance in the circuit.
24
By using the auxiliary capacitor, I achieved 2 circuits without the arcing
device. In these circuits the damping factor was unusually small and overvoltage
factor very high.
n
In order to get the best results it was necessary to achieve the ratio
C L = C L and with L = L we get C = 4C_ , .
2 1 1 4 2
The reasonance was achieved by means of 15 jars on each side of the primary
made of 6'=turns.^ With 4 turns in the primary 15 x 36/16 = 34 jars were
required. 7 With one thick conductor 68 jars would be required. (further
consideration).
Remark: Several vibrations were tested with such connections.
In some of them the sharpness of adjustment was very evident; one
turn of the regulating coil was sufficient to destroy the action, or
to cause a high increase in the maximum voltage. The jars frequently
flashed over due to this fast voltage rise during the regulating
coil handle rotation.
June 24,1899.
The following plan for obtaining an electrical circuit of exceptionally
small resistance, suitable for reasonant circuits and other applications
offers the possibility of achieving results which otherwise could not be
achieved. This plan is based on the observation that with discharges of
sufficient intensity and high frequency through a rare gas the resistance
of the gas could be reduced so as to fall considerably below the resistance
of the best conductors.
25
P. 46
Therefore, through the balloon with rare gas in it, huge amounts of energy
can pass through, or the maximum current could pass through a rare gas, which
would not pass through a copper conductor, due to its resistance and
impedance. - The plan is now to make the circuit which contains the rare
gas cylinder, which is heated to a very high red hot level, which will
offer unbelievably small resistance to the current, and to use this rare
gas cylinder for this suitable purpose. For the purpose of illustrating
this application, for example, for telegraphy, the diagram is given on
which S designates the ac current source, preferably of high frequency, C
capacitor in parallel with it, and L bent glass tube with rare gas which
is kept at high, red hot temperature. The conductor L is connected, as in
my system, to the ground and to the capacitance, which has to be at a higher
elevation, so that currents from the remote transmitter could pass
through. The mentioned currents have to be of the same frequency and
cause high emf. rise at the terminals of conductor L, which could be
used in a number of ways to act on the receiving device.
(to be continued).
rO c '
June 25,1899.
The following plan is suitable for amplifying small changes which occur for
example with a microphone. Let's assume that on one rotating, or generally
speaking, moving smooth or polished iron surface there is a brush made of.
soft iron steel or coated by any magnetic material. A certain friction will
occur between surfaces of the brush and the moving surface and brush v,ill
be pulled towards the moving surface. The spring could be used to return
the brush back in the opposite direction of the friction force and to maintain
it in the sensitive balance position. If the brush or the surrace is
noglegibly magnitized, the friction between magnitized surfaces will be
26
considerably increased and the brush will be pulled by a large force. Small
changes in the surface magnitization will cause such a large change in
the force which acts on the brush, and its movement could be used for various
purposes, for example, in telephones with amplified sound or for the improvement
of "wireless telephone.," or something similar. The simple device is shown
in the figure: .
5
N
The A is a cylinder with a smooth iron surface, if not entirely made of
iron which is quickly rotated; b is a small rod or brush which touches the
cylinder, also made of soft iron. The differential spring s^s keeps
the light plate or rod in a balanced position, so it presses
slightly on cylinder A. S is solenoid which receives the energy from battery B
in series with a microphone M. When one talks into the microphone the brush b
will vibrate, and its movement could control each device, as for example, the
valve or another microphone.
P. 47 June 26, 1899
In the following, the old idea of gas separation, will be applied with a
high emf. on the following device using a new oscillator.
Three tubes, t^ t^ t^ (it is assumed that only 3 are required).are inserted
• concentrically so that they don't touch each other, because of isolating
parts a b c. In these isolating parts output tubes ABC are for the purpose
of piping various gases into reservoirs where they could be pressurized.
27
Remark: For this device it is preferable to use the type of oscillator
with a mercury interruptor, which is fed by dc current, so that
the stress on T would be, generally speaking, in one direction. Any
other generator with sufficient emf. will give the same results.
It is understandable 'that as the tubes produce output there will have to be a
required suction, or the mixture will be under a desired pressure. High voltage
terminal T is an insulating part P which is attached to the widest tube t^.
The particles of gas which contacts the active end are strongly pushed and
the distance to which they will be forced depends on their size and weight
hydrogen will be thrown further than other gases. This latter element,
if it exists, will pass therefore mainly through tube A, while several larger
molecules will pass through other tubes. By letting a gas pass through
the device again, the desirable level of purity or separation will be
achieved.
The wiring schematic for the device for telegraphy through natural media
without a mediator and according to the method which was tested in New York.
The method is not as good as the capacitor method for the individual impulse
transmitting, however high reliability could be achieved. The idea is to
use a number of synchronized circuits and to make a receiver which depends on
the number of such circuits. The experiments indicated that a high level
of reliability could be achieved with 2 circuits. I think it is impossible
to disturb the receiver with 3 circuits if the vibrations do not have
common harmonics very close to the base frequency.
June 27,1899. .
P. 48 '' '•
Some devices which were tested experimentally are shown in the diagrams
below. This has-to be continued.
Figures 1, 2,. 3 show the device at the transmitting station by which 2
vibrations are achieved for different levels. Not all circuits are
shown to keep the diagrams simple. In case 1, two transmitting circuits,
which have - to be at a certain distance, were excited with alternating
capacitor discharges of suitable capacitance through the corresponding
primaries. In figures 2 and 3, one transmitting circuit is adjusted so
that its period changes by inserting the certain inductance as in Figure 2,
or by periodical short circuiting of one portion of the circuit with some
automatic device. Such a device, however, is not necessary, and the assembly
of that kind of interrupter r will describe later on." In the receiving
stations synchronized circuits will react to the vibrations of the transmitter,
each circuit to one of them. The receiver R reacts only when both circuits
I ad II move senstive devices a and a . The diagrams explain that by
themselves.
p. 49 June 28, 1899
An approximate estimate of a secondary of 20 turns on the coil frame, about
which I have talked previously and on the basis of the secondary with 36
turns on the same frame. On the latter secondary, the wire was wound on
each third groove and on the first secondary on each seventh groove.
Roughly estimated, the capacitance of the secondary with 20 turns, if
capacitance of secondary with 36 turns is designated by C will be:
0^20x30 = 5 C
1 36 7 21
and self-induction of the secondary with 20 turns compared with L
secondary of 36 turns, will be:
29
2 . 5
L = f 20_ ) x 36 x 3 L = As L = 383 x 10 C = 1,200 cm.
1 \36 ' 20 x 7
5 6
290 cm. and L = 383 x 675 x 10 =9x10 cm.
1 2835
- 6 — 1
9 x 10° = 107 oscillation periods of second;
9 7
10 10 system (approx.)
7
or n = 10 = 93,458/sec.
107
Now the wire length for 20 turns with approx. 139 feet/turn would be 139 x 20 ft.
That gives X = 11,120 ft. or X 2,780 ft. which will correspond
4
approximately to n = 90,000 per sec.
The sphere, of 38 cm. capacitance added would give the total capacitance
290 + 38 = 328, J 328 = 18.11 §290 = 17 approx.
Therefore, by the sphere addition, the secondary vibration will be reduced to
a 17/18.11 portion, which is approx. 17/18.11 x 93,460 = 88,000. That
would be too fast a vibration to be suitable for the device, because
we would have only 4 jars on each side of the primary.
With an additional coil of 1,500 cm. capacitance, added in series with the
secondary at the open end, the capacitance in total will be 1,500 + 290 = 1790;
this is approx. 6 times larger than previously. The vibration will then
be slower by approximately ^6 = 2.5 times; it is 37,400/second. This is better.
P. 50 June 29, 1899
The first good test with a newly wound secondary with 36 turns was performed
today. The wire was #10, stranded; the turns were wound in every third
groove. The conductor separation was approximately 1 7/8".
Therefore,
C = 5/21 x 1200 =
*
From here
T = 2 7 T
j 290 :
io 3 1 /
9 x 10 !
30
The vibration conditions of first experiments:.
The approximate secondary self-inductance is 5 x 10 cm. The additional coil
was connected to the open end of the secondary, while it had 240 turns
on the core 6’ in length and 2’ in diameter. Rougly estimated coil self-
inductancS is 10 7 cm.' A = 2900 cm 2 , N = 240 turns, 1 = 183 cm.
7 5 7
1 = 2900 x 240 x 2 = 114 x 10 for the rough estimate = 10
The wavelength would be(by neglecting the capacitance):
4 x [5280 (secondary) + 1440 (coil)] = 4 x 6720 = 26,880' or approx. 5 miles
In order to achieve this wavelength, the actual primary frequency has to
amount to 187,000/5 = 37,400/sec. (the same value was obtained previously).
The primary capacitance is found from:
1
= 2TT
/
—
2jr
i 4
/ 7 x 10 x Cp
37,400
1000
P
3
10
/
9
10
374
|/cp -
= 27T x 0.84
IP-
!/" c p>
- 1000 or approx. 0.5
2 Tfx 0.84 x 374 1975
10 '
*Cp = -0.7 mfd.
Thiw will require 0.7/0.003 jars = 233 jars with 2 primary windings m
parallel, or 233/4 or approx. 58 jars with 2 primaries in series in tota
Because so many jars were not available, it was obvious that only hig er
vibrations could be achieved. This explains why the first results were
not satisfactory.
The wiring schematic of the device for the capacitor method which was the
equipment subject
J
31
?• 51 j un e 30, 1899
Simple equations which are used for the purpose of a rough estimate of
frequently-required values.
In eauation T = 2 7/ /LC, L is in ft. entries, but usually it is required in
10 3 ^
Due to that we can take
T. =
2 TT iHc or approx, when L is in cm.
lo 3 X lo 4 |Oo
- {
LC where C is in mfd.1 )
10
2 14
From the equation L = x 10 we have
4C
2 -.o 4
C = T x 10
2 )
4L
P. 52
Expressing C by means of number of jars, where C - n x 0.003
2 ,17
"we get n = T x 10
12L
by introducing X again in miles instead of T^, and because
T = X
187,000
we get A = 374 1 1 LC or, because usually A/4 is required
lo 4 " V
A_ = Hoi
4 10*
LC
The observations made while experimenting with oscillators with 36 1/2 turns
and an additional coil:
An additional coil, as observed with the device in New York, represents
an excellent way to achieve a very high emf. But it is unusual for the suitable
development of independent coil vibration, that its torque has to be very high
in relationship to both when the relationship is such that tree vibrations
occur easily and more obviously. But, if the imposed torque is very high
while the coils torque is small, then the free vibrations could not be
established easily by themselves. That is the same as in Mechanical Engineering.
The pendulum is disturbed and the impossed torque will dominate more or
less. 1 differentiate this fromthe amplification factor which depends on
pL/R.
It was obvious to me that to achieve the best result, it will be necessary
to have "free" vibrations, when an additional coil is excited this way:
coil vibration, secondary vibration and vibration of the combined system are the
same. Bearing this in mind, it is useful to insert the inductance between the
secondary and the additional coil, to make the additional coil free when the
imposed vibration is too strong to allow the occurrence of the required coil
vibration immediately.
It appeared from the experiment that it would be useful to have some
self-inductance in the circuit of the interrupting device in the primary.
(This has to be checked). The use of a capacitor in series with the supply
secondary, is sometimes useful, but very little when the secondary vibration
is in resonance with the primary. Then the short circuiting of the supply
transformer is less frequent and the spark-overs are loud and sharp.
and believe that their work will not fail to havo due influence
on similarly situated companies this side of the border.
MR, TEGLA ON ROENTOEN RAYS.
I AST week Mr. Tesla gave some of the results of his ex-
J periments in the domain of Bontgen rays, before the
New York Academy of Sciences, and showed some of his lat¬
est types of high frequency generators. Mr. Tesla still ad¬
heres to his original view that the Rontgen effects are due
to the action of molecules projected from the tube at high
velocities, but we must confess our inability to reconcile this
view with the results of his experiments in deflecting the
Rontgen rays by means of a magnet, unless we assume the
molecules charged and at the same time endowed with a vor¬
tical motion, a point which Mr. Tesla did not elaborate on. It
is so rarely that Mr. Tesla appears on the lecture platform
that it is to be regretted that the conditions surrounding his
last appearance were not more favorable. It was hardly fair
to Mr. Tesla, or to the large audience which had assembled
solely to greet him, to delay his appearance until two other
estimable speakers had taken up the time of the audience for
nearly three-quarters of an hour. The result was that it was
close on to 10 o'clock before Mr. Tesla began, and he was
forced to conclude his address in its initial stages. It is to
be hoped, for the benefit of the science at large that Mr.
Tesla will find time to write out his address in full for the
Transactions of the Academy. Brief as his utterances were,
they were extremely interesting and they evidenced a mellow¬
ing and a mastery Indicative of higher peifection than ever of
his powers as an investigator and elucidntor of obscure nat¬
ural phenomena.
ISUUJiUHl WW
' 5*-fcwk*H* W w>y &** 3* **»* *».*’” ,..
■ : % * «y* «m**w «*«• •**» *2?
■■;Y,,*iU those of the Rfintgen ray* «*# rMWHiy absorb,*!
• ••Miivsr to the la* cf’lnverse squaw* »» exposure of U
A>‘. at % inch distance would require, at 10 Inches dls-
., for equal effects, about. SO, hours, or over two days.
»s then, no occasion for any alarm at the eff.^ts or
• tree rays, as exposures of sufficient duration to priKluce
are ra-reSr If ever necessary. . , •
recard to the claim which has been made that injury
v follows exposure made by Induction colls, while Btatic
-y.cblnes do not produce the effect, it may be saW that ln the
i r.fer’s former experiment, of which the nttle finger was
vie the subject, a large capacity static machine was used,
, ;fl the result was severe enough. The present experiment
,•*« made with an induction coll as the source of ^ectricdis-
•-barges, and as yet there is no difference in the results. The
. 'Tti-i is now, of course, limited to two small spots a little
distance apart. . _
ACADEHY
>
VIS TESl.A BEFORE THE NEW YORK ACADEHY OF
SCIENCES.
April ft, Mr Nikola Tesla delivered before the New York
\cfidemy of Sciences an address “On the Streams of
.-■! and Rijn! ten, with Novel Apparatus for Their Produc-
Thc lecturer began by stating that in 1894, In experl-
..->ng to determine the actinic .action of phosphorescent
-. , v ip emanating from vacuum tubes, he had found that the
tcfinic power of f 'rookes tribes varied greatly, and in the most
anomalous io • Thus some tubes emitting a strong light
iiad very Titti; .,. -ti on photographic plates, while some.show-
ing a feeble ? • ! very strongly on such plates. A large
number >f »!•?< 'fetes, made by Tonnele for the Century
Magfizifio ■> In Mr. Tesla’s laboratory when it was
dwstn.ie.l-.bv Uw but! thus he was unable now to examine
them 1' the lisius"# effects. He believed that he had just
missed the discovery which made Rdntgen famous and .though
he was thoroughly familiar with LenArd’s work, he did not see
f<i.r enough,
Mr. Tesla then reviewed his work Ini the direction of obtaln-
April 14, 1897]
THE ELECTR
Ing a reliable apparatus for generating high frequency cu|
rents, which he recognized as the keynote to the production
of vacuum tube lighting. He told how he had met with dlfl
cultles at every point; how a small bubble of all - would dl
stroy the value of the coil, or how one-quarter of an inch <|
wire too much or too little would throw a coil out of bnlanc
how one day a coil would run cold and on another day hoi
etc. By finally calling to his aid the condenser, Mr. Tesll
stated, he had succeeded in obtaining the desired action afil
now nothing stood in the way of securing millions of vibrif
tlons from ordinary circuits. The lecturer then briefly ejl
plained the principle of the condenser discharge as applied t|
high frequency currents, and pointed to various types of a;|
paratus on the lecture table designed to utilize the principle. [
In order to demonstrate the action of the high frequene|
currents Mr. Tesla attached a circular 1. r of heavy copp
wire to the terminals of a high frequency generator afil
brought to brilliant Incandescence a small lamp connect!
diametrically across the heavy loop; the illumination of t|
lamp could be varied by connecting it to various points
the diameter of the loop. Mr. Tesla also lit the lamp by t|
current Induced In a second loop brought In proximity to tl
first. He explained that the. coll accomplishing this woj
had a resistance of 600 ohms and an inductance of 6 he
the coll was connected to the circuit one-half the time
took from the primary circuit only 5 watts.
Mr. Tesla next showed a vacuum tube lit from the termin
of another high frequency machine. He also showed a
consisting of a single turn of heavy wire which formed
core, as it were, of a,small coil of a few turns wound on I
paper cylinder surpending the henvy wire. When connectd
to a high frequency generator, this apparatus gave a 4-lnc
spark with an expenditure of energy equal to that taken
one lamp. Mr. Tesla stated that his high frequency gene
tors were so constructed that they could be connected to at
existing circuits, dlreet or alternating.
Returning to the Rdntgen rays, the lecturer stated that
had succeeded in discovering a new source of these rays, ft|
more powerful than any heretofore available, though the
Acuity of maintaining it was very great. This new source i!
the electric arc; not the ordinary arc, however. The arc til
quired for the purpose is that maintained between a platinujf
terminal and an aluminum plate, as Illustrated in the aceon
panying diagram, where A represents the aluminum plate anl
B the platinum, enclosed In a glass jar. ]
Mr. Tesla stated that he had also succeeded in deflecting
• the Rontgen rays by a magnet. He had proved this by do
figctlng the rays into a condenser placed a long distance frou
the*sorirce of the rays, and which in 5 seconds was charged
sufficiently to throw a galvanometer needle off the scale. 1
O NE of the longest electrical patents ever Issued has beei
granted to Mr. Thaddeus Cahill, of New York. It .in
eludes 175 claims for the electrical production afid dlstrlbutlo
His operas are among his best known works;
Four Saints in Three Acts (1928) and The
Mother of Us All (1947) boast libretti by
Thomson’s close friend, the poet Gertrude
Stein ( q.v .). A later opera was Lord Byron
(1968). His instrumental music includes two
symphonies, several symphonic poems, and
c'oncerti for flute and cello (composed 1954;
1950). He also composed songs, choral works,
chamber music, piano pieces, and film music.
He was music critic for the New York Herald
Tribune (1940-54) and published several col¬
lections of penetrating, perceptive critical arti¬
cles. His autobiography, Virgil Thomson, was
published in 1966.
•music for films 12:667g
•operas to Stein texts 13:593b
Thomson, William (19th-century scientist):
see Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord.
Thomson atomic model, earliest theoretical
description of the inner structure of atoms,
proposed about 1900 by Lord Kelvin and
strongly supported by Sir Joseph John Thom¬
son, who had discovered (1897) the electron, a
‘ negatively charged part of every atom.
Though several alternative models were ad¬
vanced in the 1900s by Lord Kelvin and oth¬
ers, Thomson held that atoms are uniform
spheres of positively charged matter in which
electrons are embedded. Popularly known as
the plum-pudding model, it had to be aban¬
doned (1911) on both theoretical and experi¬
mental grounds in favour of the Rutherford
atomic model.
•development and shortcomings 2:336a
Thomson compass, a light mariner’s com¬
pass invented by William Thomson (Lord
Kelvin) in 1876.
■design and advantages 4:1041b
Thomson effect, the evolution or absorption
of heat when electric current passes through a
circuit composed of a single material that has
a temperature difference between two points
along its length. This transfer of heat is super¬
imposed on the common production of heat
by currents flowing through conductors be¬
cause of their electrical resistance. If a copper
wire carrying a steady electric current is sub¬
jected to external heating at a short section
while the rest remains cooler, heat is absorbed
from the copper as the conventional, current
approaches the hot point, and heat is trans¬
ferred to the copper just beyond the hot point.
This effect was discovered (1854) by the Brit¬
ish physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).
Major ref. 6:579f
•thermoelectric effects in solids 18:316a
thomsonite (mineral): see natrolite.
Thomson scattering, the scattering of elec¬
tromagnetic radiation by free or loosely
bound electrons.
• discovery and principles 6:662g
Thon Buri, former province ( changwat ),
south central Thailand, occupying an area of
175 sq mi (450 sq km), with a coastline on the
Gulf of Thailand. It is drained by the Mae
Nam (river) Chao Phraya and numerous ca¬
nals ( khlong's ), many of which have “floating
villages." Rice is the main crop, and fruit is
widely grown for market. Apart from Thon
Buri (the provincial capital), the. main towns
are Taling Chan and Bang Khun Thian.
On the west bank of the Chao Phraya oppo¬
site Bangkok, Thon Buri city was the national
capital from 1767 to 1782. It is now a suburb
of Bangkok, the current capital to which it is
linked by three bridges. In 1972 Thun Buri
a:,! Tl-ngkok were merged into one city-
p riroc culled Itangkok-Thon Buri metropo-
li I* i< I’gh -.-•■• ncfacturing centre, with rice
i. ... ’ s;v. ' ,. Fruit is grown in the out-
•j ‘ f V, »t Aren (Temple
, • . ; ; ■!., fruri is Thon
Buri city’s best known structure. It is also
the site of a naval academy and several hospi¬
tals. Educational facilities include Mahidol
University and the Thonburi Technical Insti¬
tute. Thon Buri’s railway station is the ter¬
minus of the line from Malaysia. Pop. (1970)
city, 628,015.
■capital founding and location
advantages 16:721 c
■map, Thailand 18:198
Thonet, Michael (b. July 2, 1796, Boppard,
West Germany—d. March 3, 1871, Vienna),
pioneer in the industrialization of furniture
manufacture, whose experiments in the pro¬
duction of bentwood furniture widely in¬
fluenced contemporary and modern styles and
whose chairs, still made today, were the work
of a functionalist genius esteemed by eminent
modern designers.
A humble artisan who set up his own work¬
shop specializing in parquetry. (1819), Thonet
began in 1830 to experiment with new cabinet¬
making techniques. He developed a system of
steambent veneers and glued four or five
together, from which he made complete
chairs that were light and curvilinear. Similar
but less free techniques were in use at the time
in New York City by the German-born furni¬
ture maker John Henry Belter.
Thonet’s inventiveness, attracted the atten¬
tion of Richard Metternich, who in 1842 invit¬
ed Thonet to settle in Vienna; for the next five
years he worked on the Neorococo interiors of
the Liechtenstein Palace. Some of his work
there included bent, solid wood, formed by
methods familiar to wheelwrights; these
pieces were subcontracted through the firm of
Carl Leistler and Son, then decorating the pal¬
ace, with whom Thonet had gone into part¬
nership (dissolved in 1849).
His representative works shown at the Great
Exhibition, London (1851), were.a huge suc¬
cess. In 1853 he incorporated with his sons,
renaming his firm Gebrlider Thonet. By 1856
he had perfected the bending by heat of solid
beechwood into curvilinear shapes, and he
was ready for mass production, exporting as
far as South America. Factories were later es¬
tablished in Hungary and Moravia. Catapult¬
ing to success, he opened salons throughout
Europe (including Moscow) and in the U.S.
(New York City and Chicago). By 1870 his
Viennese firm was producing furniture in hith¬
erto unheard-of quantities—some 400,000
pieces annually. After his death the enterprise
was conducted by his sons, who continued to
open more factories.
Among Thonet’s most popular designs were
those of cafe chairs, rocking chairs, and hat
stands. His solid bentwood furniture, never
out of production, was again made fashion¬
able in the 1920s by the renowned modern ar¬
chitect and designer Le Corbusier. The
utilitarian chairs, mass produced at low
prices, were seen all over the Western world
and shown in the paintings of such artists as
the French artist Toulouse-Lautrec and the
U.S. artist John Sloan. Interest in.Art Nou¬
veau in the 1960s accounted for .still another
revival of Thonet’s bentwood furniture,
•bentwood furniture manufacture 7:804b;
illus. 788
Thongs (African people): see Tsonga.
Thonon-les-Bains, town, Haute-Savoie de-
partement, southeastern France, on a lacus¬
trine terrace overlooking the southern shore
of Lake Geneva near the mouth of the Dran.se
River. It was the capital of the historic district
of Chablais. The site was occupied by the Ro¬
mans and later by the Burgundians, and dur¬
ing the Wars of Relig'On in the 16th century it
was fought Gscr by the Bernese and the Duke
of Savoy. In th*- Place d > Chateau, site of a
fortified chateau b Th by the dukes of Savoy
and destroyed hr the fto > in 1589, is a stat¬
ue of Gen. Josa-j a V' U> , who org i-
1, 1 ■ r . ,. 1 ■ -. u-rii duri-u:
967 Thor
the Revolution. The church of Saint-Hip-
polyte, decorated in 17th-ccntury style, has a
12th-century crypt and a 13th-century font
embellished with the arms of the House of
Savoy. Attached to it is a modern, neo-Gothic
basilica dedicated to St. Francis of Sales, w ho
conducted missionary work jn the vicinity and
was responsible for the renunciation of Protes¬
tantism by the inhabitants of Chablais at the
end of the 16th century. A museum in the
Chateau de Sonnaz contains exhibits devoted
to the prehistoric Lake Dwellers, as well as a
hydrological model of Lake Geneva. Thonon-
les-Bains is a popular summer resort, much
frequented for its mineral springs. The town is
also a centre for trade in cheeses. In addition
to metallurgical industries, there are factories
producing plumbing fixtures, bicycle parts,
electrical apparatus, paper, cigarettes, and
food products. A government fish hatchery
produces trout, salmon, and char used to
stock Lake Geneva and the rivers and lakes of
the departement. A funicular railway runs
from the lake shore to the town. Pop. (latest
census) 20,095.
46°22’ N, 6°29' E
Thony, Eduard (1866-1950), German paint¬
er and caricaturist.
•Prussian officer depiction'3:913e
Thor, deity common to all the early German¬
ic peoples, a great warrior represented as a
red-bearded, middle-aged man of enormous
strength, an implacable foe to the harmful
race of giants but benevolent toward man¬
kind. His figure was generally secondary to
that of the god Odin, who in some traditions
was his father. But in Iceland, and perhaps
among all northern peoples except the royal
families, he was apparently worshipped more
than any other god. There is evidence that a
corresponding deity named Thunor, or Tho-
nar, w'as worshipped in England and on the
Continent, but little is known , about him.
Thor’s name was the Germanic word for
thunder, and it was the thunderbolt that was
represented by his hammer, the attribute most
commonly associated with him. The hammer,
Mjollnir (q.v.), had many marvellous quali¬
ties, including that of returning to the thrower
like a boomerang; it is frequently carved on
runic stones and funerary stelae.
Among Thor’s chief enemies was the world
serpent Jormungand (Jormungandr), symbol
of evil, who surrounded the world. Tradition-
Thor with his hairier, Ujo'livr, c " •
bronze statu*-! 1 .-? f; ; - *••• m Ic- '
1000; in the ‘k-:. .'.V'--. t* u* > r vkf
Reyhav-
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 3
photographs, negatives, VHS tapes, cassette tapes, 35 mm slides, and microfilm. The collection
contains 49 boxes and has been arranged into 8 series: I. Contextual/Biographical about Tesla;
II. Leland Anderson's Research; III. Topical; IV. Biographical Materials, Tesla's Contemporaries;
V. Tesla's Patents and Inventions; VI. Scholars Files; VII. Journals and Publications; VIII.
Audio/Materials.
Series I. Contextual / Biographical about Tesla
Series one contains contextual material on the life of Nikola Tesla, primarily contained in
secondary publications concerning different facets of his life and work.
Box 1 Scrapbooks created by Leland Anderson containing newspaper clippings, articles, and
photocopied materials about Tesla, photocopies of letters to and from Tesla
concerning his work and discoveries (1900s-1940s), and articles on Tesla and his
contemporaries.
Box 2 2 Scrapbooks of published articles concerning Tesla's theories and works, from 1943
through 1961, and the 1970s. There are also three folders of assorted
biographical materials concerning Tesla, including correspondence to and from Tesla
and copies of agreements with Westinghouse.
Box 3 3 Scrapbooks containing newspaper clippings, articles, and assorted photocopied
biographical materials
Box 4 Biographical material on Tesla, primarily copies and chapter excerpts from
different works. There is an original manuscript of John Jay O'Neil's biography on Tesla,
Prodigal Genius.
Box 5 Contextual materials about the life and times of Nikola Tesla including writings about
him, articles about his life, interests, and ideas, as well as theories he was connected
with.
Box 6 Contextual information, primarily copies of authors' papers, news clippings,
magazines, and research concerning topics such as Tesla's death, Tesla and extra
terrestrial communication, Tesla's family, his patron saint, spirituality, social
acquaintances, and musings on his personal philosophy.
Box 7 Photocopied materials featuring Tesla's writings for various publications and addresses
to the New York Academy of Science, NY Electrical Society, and others. There is also
photocopied correspondence with colleagues and relatives (1880-1942) that was
translated by staff from the Tesla Museum in Belgrade. There is a box level inventory
inside this box.
Series II. Leland Anderson's Research
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 4
Series two consists of copies of archival and library materials from a number of institutions, as
well as published materials on Tesla's life or his work, which were used by Anderson in
compiling his writings about the man.
Box 8 Primarily photocopied archives materials, including copies from the Marie Scherff
Collections at Columbia University, all on Tesla's life and work. Marie Scherff's father,
George Scherff, was Tesla's trusted assistant. Box 8 also includes Library of Congress
(LOC) copies of correspondence between Tesla and Mark Twain (1892-1910),
Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company (1888-1899), and John Pierpont
Morgan (1907-1943).
Box 9 Photocopied archival material, primarily from the LOC, of correspondence
between the Westinghouse Company, Tesla, George Scherff, and others. There is
additional material from other institutions.
Box 10 Primarily contains copies of Columbia University correspondence between Tesla and
Robert Underwood Johnson, or between Johnson and others concerning Tesla. Johnson
was an author, editor of the Century Magazine, and United States diplomat.
Box 11 Bibliography, indexes, and articles Anderson and Ratzlaff used to compile their
bibliography.
Box 12 Articles and reports written or edited by Anderson on Tesla's theories, inventions, and
lectures; binder of some primary letters, with 2 possibly written by Tesla, and others
concerning him. There are several portfolios containing Anderson's views on public
opinions about Tesla and his work.
Box 13 Research materials used in Anderson's writing and scholarship, including photocopies
from books, correspondence with other experts and institutions, FOIA requests, and
materials from the Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Serbia.
Series III. Topical
Series three contains topical materials relating to Tesla including radio wave development and
Tesla's role in wireless experimentation, and international engineers' conference bearing his
name, AC/DC current war, Niagara Falls, Tesla coils, government materials concerning Tesla,
and the Wardenclyffe Tower.
Subseries A. Radio History
Box 14 Historical developments in radio history including articles related to Tesla's
contributions to wireless radio transmission. There are editions of the Antique
Wireless Association (AWA) review (1980s-1990). There are copies of Tesla's
correspondence with Benjamin F. Miessner.
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 5
Box 15 Materials concerning the history of radio including Mid-Atlantic Antique Radio Club
newsletters (1980s-1990s), proceedings from the Institute of Radio Engineers (1950s-
1960s), and articles from early 20th century.
Box 16 Materials concerning the history of radio including historical context for radio and
wireless transmission development. This box also includes Tesla Symposia materials,
including commemorative and scholarly articles (1956-1990s).
Subseries B. Tesla Symposia
*The Teslo Symposia is an international technical engineers conference, usually held in
conjunction with the anniversary of Tesla's birthday.
Box 16 Box 16 also includes Tesla Symposia materials, including commemorative and
scholarly articles (1956-1990s).
Box 17 Symposia materials, proceedings, commemorations 1970s-1990s; Symposia lectures
1990s.
Subseries C. AC/DC Controversy, Niagara Falls
Box 18 Select articles covering and describing the AC/DC controversy involving Tesla,
Westinghouse, and Edison, as well as the development of hydroelectric power at
Niagara Falls.
Subseries D. Legal Materials
Box 19 Legal materials and court proceedings including several of Tesla's patent battles, as
well as other relevant cases, some dealing with Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co.;
requests and correspondence of Leland Anderson to various repositories for said
information.
Subseries E. Tesla Coils
Box 20 Tesla's Coil Builders Association (1982-1998); topographical maps of Colorado Springs
and area (1995); general information about Tesla's Colorado Springs experiments.
Box 21 Materials on Tesla coils, including articles, scholarly papers, and bulletins on Tesla Coils
(1890-1980S).
Subseries F. Government Materials
Box 22 Government files: FBI files obtained by Arthur B. Keyes through FOIA requests (1943-
1949); correspondence of division of Investigation and Research (1940s); Federal Agency
records on Nikola Tesla (1934-1981).
Subseries G. Wardenclyffe Tower
Box 23 Journal articles and other materials on Tesla's Wardenclyffe Tower.
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 6
Series IV. Biographical Materials on Tesla's Contemporaries
Series four is comprised of secondary contextual material focused on engineers and scientists
of Tesla's time, as well as person who have done research on Tesla, or have conducted more
recent experimentation based on his theories and work.
Box 24 Photocopies of research, correspondence of, and biographical materials on prominent
scientists and engineers, primarily Tesla's contemporaries, including George Scherff,
Steinmetz, and Westinghouse (1890s-1990s).
Box 25 A-H: Biography files of prominent scientists and engineers including Tesla's
contemporaries, as well as figures/persons that have researched and studied Tesla
(1900s).
Box 26 G-R: Biography files of prominent scientists and engineers including Tesla's
contemporaries, as well as figures/persons that have researched and studied Tesla
(1900s).
Box 27 Author extracts from works on or about Tesla; photocopied materials extracted from
authors works about Tesla or work based on his theories.
Series V. Tesla's patents and inventions
Series five focus on the over 300 patents Tesla received during his life time, comprised of
secondary materials on the subject.
Box 28 Photocopied materials removed from published materials specifically on Tesla's
inventions and discoveries such as the electric motor turbines, and wireless radio waves.
There is one folder of photocopies of Tesla's own notes (1920s) concerning ether and
gravity.
Box 29 Articles, scholarly papers, and reflections on Tesla's inventions, including pumps,
turbines, and other machinery. Included are patent materials, Leland Anderson's
correspondence with other Tesla scholars about patents and inventions (1880s-1980s).
Box 30 Patent and invention materials, some of which is from NARA, as well as more recent
research materials and studies based on Tesla's patents.
Series VI. Scholars Files
Series six contains analytical and research based materials produced Professor Warren Rice and
Dr. James Corum based on Tesla's work and theories.
Subseries A. Professor Warren Rice
Professor Warren Rice (b.l925-d.2009) was a mechanical engineer at Arizona State
University
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 7
Box 31 Professor Warren Rice Papers, A-H; college papers and dissertations related to Tesla's
theories and work.
Box 32 W. Rice Papers, H-Z. Box 32 also includes J.R. Johler reports and papers on radio waves
produced by the National Bureau of Standards; research, papers, some correspondence
of James R. Wait, an electromagnetic scientist and educator.
Subseries B. Dr. James F. Corum
Dr. James F. Corum is a highly distinguished electrical and electronic engineer, and is a
member of the Tesla Memorial Society of New York.
Box 33 Dr. James F. Corum papers including technical and scholarly papers on Tesla; as well as 6
cassette tapes of Corum's speeches to the International Tesla Society, Inc.
Box 34 James F. Corum Papers including technical and scholarly articles and analyses of Tesla's
work (1930-1990).
Series VII. Journals and Publications
Series seven contains numerous scientific and engineering publications and journals containing
articles about Tesla, his work, or subsequent work and research based in his theories. Several
publications are produced by Tesla-centered organizations.
Box 35 Foreign Language publications, primarily the American Srbobran, the newspaper
produced by the Serb National Federation. There is also a serial titled Tesla,
published in Serbian.
Box 36 A-E: Scientific and engineering periodicals containing articles about Tesla, his work, or
research based on his theories. Primarily a variety of copies of newspaper articles.
Box 37 E: Scientific and engineering periodicals containing articles about Tesla, his work, or
research based on his theories, including: Electrical Engineers (1888,1890, and 1910s),
Electrical World (1889-1899, 1956-1990).
Box 38 E-M: Scientific and engineering periodicals containing articles about Tesla, his work, or
research based on his theories, including various electrical and electronic journals.
Box 39 N-P: Scientific and engineering periodicals containing articles about Tesla, his work, or
research based on his theories, including: Regular Mechanics, Popular Science, copies of
New York Times editions (1890s-1990s).
Box 40 Q-S: Scientific and engineering periodicals containing articles about Tesla, his work, or
research based on his theories, including Practical Electrics (1921-1925), Radio
Electronics (1940s-1960s), Science and Inventions (1920s-1930s).
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 8
Box 41 S-Y: Scientific and engineering periodicals containing articles about Tesla, his work, or
research based on his theories, including The Teslian, The Tesla Journal, a 1931 Time
edition covering Tesla, Westinghouse publications, and the Scientific American (1892-
1915).
Box 42 Bound copies of Electrical World (1891); On May 1892 edition featuring the full text of
Tesla's London lecture; Illustrated Electrical Review editions (1890s); Scientific
American (1900s); all containing articles or references to Tesla's works.
Box 43 American Srbobran newspapers on Tesla (1911-1945); copy of "Lightning Over Little
London," about Tesla's experiments in Colorado Springs and written by Leland
Anderson; assorted other serials.
Box 44 Photocopies of newspaper articles, feature magazine articles, concerning Tesla, his
work, inventions, discoveries, and theories from 1890s-1910s
Box 45 Contains Electrical Review editions from 1890s-1900s; assorted publications with
stories on Tesla.
Series VIII. Audio/Visual Materials
Series eight contains the audio and visual materials within the collection, including
photographic reproductions of Tesla and his work, VHS tapes containing Tesla features and
interviews with Leland Anderson, Tesla correspondence from the LOC on microfilm, and
cassette tapes with audio recording of lectures and speeches concerning Tesla and his work.
Box 45 Box 45 also contains several larger photographs of Wardenclyffe tower, machinery, and
turbines. There are also 2 images of the rock band Tesla.
Box 46 Photographs of Tesla, machinery, turbines, Wardenclyffe, Tesla with friends and
associates, Tesla scientific experiments, electromagnetic experiments Leland Anderson
was involved with. The photographs concerning Tesla are primarily reproductions or
copies.
Box 47 VHS Tapes (1990s): National Tesla Productions, Inc., feature programs on Tesla and his
works. Three Tapes contain a personal interview with Leland Anderson about his
interest in Tesla and a history of Tesla's work.
Box 48 Microfilm (1888-1940s): Tesla correspondence on microfilm from Library of Congress,
Tesla Museum, and Columbia University Library.
Box 49 Cassette Tapes: Scholars and scientists lectures, radio tributes to Tesla, 1990 lectures
from Tesla Symposia. There are also a number of 35mm slides, containing images of
Tesla materials and ephemera Leland Anderson photographed.
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 9
Arrangement
The Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla consists of 49 boxes and has been arranged into
the following 8 series:
Boxes 1-7: Series I. Contextual / Biographical about Tesla
Boxes 8-13: Series II. Leland Anderson's Research
Boxes 14-23: Series III. Topical
Boxes 14-16: Subseries A. Radio History
Boxes 16-17: Subseries B. Tesla Symposia
Box 18: Subseries C. AC/DC Controversy, Niagara Falls
Box 19: Subseries D. Legal Materials
Boxes 20-12: Subseries E. Tesla Coils
Box 22: Subseries F. Government Materials
Box 23: Subseries G. Wardenclyffe Tower
Boxes 24-27: Series IV. Biographical Materials on Tesla's Contemporaries
Boxes 28-30: Series V. Tesla's Patents and Inventions
Boxes 31-34: Series VI. Scholars Files
Boxes 31-32: Subseries A. Professor Warren Rice
Boxes 33-34: Subseries B. Dr. Jeff F. Corum
Boxes 35-45: Series VII. Journals and Publications
Boxes 45-49: Series VIII. Audio / Visual materials
Statement of Acquisition:
Gift from Leland Anderson and the Serb National Federation in 2004.
Archives accession # 2004.0160
Restrictions:
None.
Preferred Citation:
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, 1880s-1990s, MSS 0481, Thomas and Katherine
Detre Library and Archives, Senator John Heinz History Center
Related Material:
Westinghouse Electric Corporation Records, 1865-2000, MSS 424, Thomas and Katherine Detre
Library and Archives, Senator John Heinz History Center
Separated Material:
A large amount of biographical and technical books on or about Nikola Tesla and his work were
separated from the collection and added to the Library's holdings:
Cheney, Margaret, Tesla: Man out of Time, Dell Publishing Company, New York NY,
1981. [paperback]
Beckhard, Arthur J, Electrical Genius Nicola Tesla, Julian Messner, Inc, New York, 1959.
Cheney, Margaret, Tesla: Man out of Time , Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1981.
Hnkoja Tecja , 1994
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 10
Dommermuth-Costa, Carol, Nikola Tesla: A Spark of Genius, Lerner Publications
Company, Minneapolis, MN, 1994.
O'neill, John J, Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla, Ives Washburn, Inc. (New York,
NY: 1944)
Hunt, Inez and Wanetta W. Draper, Lightning in His Hand the Life Story of Nikola Tesla,
Denver: Sage Books, 1964.
Seifer, Marc J, Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla, Biography of a Genius,
Secaucus, NJ: Birch Lane Press, 1996.
Richardson, Thomas Lee (researcher), Introducing Nikola Tesla through some of his
achievements, Vancouver, BC: Gastown Production, nd.
Wise, Tad, Tesla: A Biographical Novel of the World's Greatest Inventor , Atlanta: Turner
Publishing, Inc, 1994.
Walters, Helen B, Nikola Tesla: Giant of Electricity, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell
Company, 1961.
Transmission of Power. Polyphase System. Tesla Patents, Pittsburgh: Westinghouse
Electric and Manufacturing Company, nd(1893?).
Handbook of Westinghouse Watthour Meters, Newark, NJ: Westinghouse Electric &
Manufacturing Company, nd.
Tesla, Nikola, My Inventions, the Autobiography of Nikola Tesla, Williston, VT: Hart
Brothers, 1982.
Martin, Thomas Commerford, The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla ,
New York: The Electrical Engineer, 1894.
Pond, Dale & Walkter Baumgartner, Nikola Tesla's Earthquake Machine, Santa Fe, NM:
The Message Company, 1995.
Glenn, Jim editor, The Complete Patents of Nikola Tesla, New York: Barnes and Noble
Books, 1994.
Hayes, Jeffery A (compiled by) Tesla's Engine: A New Dimension for Power, Milwaukee:
Tesla Engine Builders Association, 1994.
Hayes, Jeffery A (compiled by) Boundary-Layer Breakthrough: The Bladeless Tesla
Turbine (developed by C.R. "Jake" Possell), Colorado: High Energy Enterprises, Inc. 1990.
Tesla, Nikola, Experiments with Alternate Currents of High potential and High
Frequency, a lecture. New York: Mcgraw Publishing Company, 1904.
Tesla, Nikola, Experiments with Alternate Currents of High potential and High
Frequency, a lecture . New York: W.J. Johnston Company, Ltd, 1892.
Tribute to Nikola Tesla presented in Articles * Letters * Documents , Beograd: Nikola
Tesla Museum, 1961.
Nikola Tesla Lectures * Patents * Articles, Beograd: Nikola Tesla Museum, 1956.
Thomson vs. Tesla, In the United States Patent Office, 1895.
Proceedings: Tesla Symposium, New York City, January 30, 1976.
Nikola Tesla: Correspondence with Relatives, Belgrade: The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc,
1995.
Stillwell, L.B, Transmission of Power, Pittsburgh, PA: Westinghouse Electric and
Manufacturing Company, 1893. (exists in library collection)
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 11
Tesla, Nikola, Nikola Tesla: Colorado Springs Notes 1899-1900, Belgrade, Yugoslavia:
NOLIT, 1978.
O'neill, John J, Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla, New York, NY: David McKay
Company, Inc, 1944.
Cheney, Margaret, Tesla: Man out of Time. New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 1981. (2 copies,
hard-cover)
Martin, Tomas Commerford, The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla,
New York, NY: Barnes & Noble Books, 1992.
Tesla Patents, Transmission of Power: Polyphase System, Pittsburgh, PA: Westinghouse
Electric and Manufacturing Company, 1893.
Martin, Thomas Commerford, The Inventions Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla,
Milwaukee, Wl: Lee Engineering Company, 1952.
Johnston, Ben editor, My Inventions: The autobiography of Nikola Tesla, Austin, TX: Hart
Brothers, 1982.
Ratzlaff, John (editor), Tesla Said. Chula Vista, CA: Tesla Book Company.
Ratzlaff, John (editor), Tesla Said: Reference Articles for Solutions to Tesla's Secrets ,
Millbrae, CA: Tesla Book Company, 1981.
Processor:
Preliminary processing by Alex J. Toner on 12/19/12. An inventory was created by Jennifer
Bator in 2008.
Title: Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla
Dates: 1880s-1990s
Creator: Anderson, Leland
Catalog Number: MSS 0481
Thomas and Katherine Detre Library and Archives
Senator John Heinz History Center
1212 Smallman St.
Pittsburgh, PA 15222
Extent: 49.5 linear ft. (49 boxes)
Language of Materials: English, Serbian
Sponsorship:
This collection has been made accessible as part of an NHPRC-funded Basic Processing grant.
Abstract
Leland Anderson is a writer and researcher who is the author a number of published works on
the electrical engineer and inventor Nikola Tesla. Tesla, who worked for the Westinghouse
electric and Manufacturing Company in 1888, was known for his work on the alternating
current system, radio communication, and X-ray technology. Beginning in the 1940s and
continuing over the next 50 years, Anderson compiled a large collection of research materials
documenting the life and work of Tesla. The Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla
primarily contains secondary research material, including journals, articles and other
publications, and photocopies archival material from various research institutions.
Also included are Anderson's published works, biographical material on Tesla's contemporaries,
and audiovisual material related to Tesla.
Historical/Biographical Note
Leland Anderson
Leland I. Anderson (b. 1928) is a writer and researcher who is the author of a number of
published works on the electrical engineer and inventor Nikola Tesla. Anderson, an electrical
engineer, technical writer, and former manager of the Minnesota State Historical Society, took
up an interest in Tesla during high school in the 1940s, shortly after Tesla's death. Over the
course of the next 50 years, Anderson compiled a large collection of materials documenting
Tesla's life, work, inventions, technical theories, and more recent work based Tesla's ideas.
Anderson founded the Tesla Society, and was editor of its newsletter, Tesliana, beginning in the
1950s. In 1956, he and John T. Ratzlaff published an extensive bibliography of over 3,000
citations of writings by or about Tesla, which was subsequently updated over the following
decades. Additionally, Anderson has written and edited numerous books on Tesla and his work.
Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla was an electrical engineer and inventor who experimented in electricity,
magnetism, and radio waves and is best known for developing the alternating current (AC)
Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla, page 2
electrical supply system and the polyphase induction motor Recognized today as a Serbian-
American, Tesla was born in 1856 in Smiljan, Lika, which today is in modern-day Croatia. After
completing his education in Prague in 1880, he worked as chief electrician for a telephone
company in Budapest, and soon after was employed for the Continental Edison Company in
Paris.
Tesla accepted a position working with Thomas Edison in America in 1884, although he resigned
after only a year following a payment dispute with Edison. With the backing of several investors
the short-lived Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing Company was formed in 1885, followed
by the Tesla Electric Company in the spring of 1887. In 1888, after hearing of a public
presentation Tesla made proposing his alternate-current motor and transformers, George
Westinghouse licensed the patents for Tesla's polyphase induction motor, and several of his
transformers designs. Tesla was subsequently hired on a year-long contract to continue his AC
designs and act as a consultant for Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company's labs in
Pittsburgh, Pa. During the year Tesla lived and worked in Pittsburgh, he furthered his AC
designs, actually using the system to power some of the city's streetcars for a short time. Nikola
Tesla became a naturalized American citizen in 1891.
Tesla assisted Westinghouse in powering the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago,
demonstratingto the public the viability of large-scale alternating current power. He
experimented with X-ray technology and wireless radio development, and participated in
several industrial and scientific organizations including serving as vice president of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers between 1892 and 1894. In 1899, Tesla began a year¬
long series of high-voltage electricity experiments in Colorado Springs, Co. Soon after his
Colorado experiments, which gained national publicity, he received funding to build a large
transmission tower on Long Island, New York. Wardenclyffe Tower, which was never
completed, was intended by Tesla to conduct wireless communication and wireless electrical
transmission tests.
Tesla's research and experimental interests late in his life revolved around aviation, interstellar
power sources, extraterrestrial communication, weaponized energy, electrotherapeutics, and
radio-controlled. While he became more reclusive has he aged, Tesla earned roughly 300
patents internationally during his lifetime, including several bearing his name, such as the Tesla
coil and Tesla turbine. Nikola Tesla died in the New Yorker hotel, where he had long since taken
up resident, in 1943.
Scope and Content Note
The Leland Anderson Collection on Nikola Tesla documents the life and work of engineer and
inventor Nikola Tesla. The collection primarily contains secondary research materials compiled
by Anderson over the course of 50 years, and includes photocopied contextual materials on
Tesla's life and times from research institutions; Anderson's own work; topical materials
covering Tesla's various fields of work and experimentation; biographical material on Tesla's
contemporaries; journal and scholarly articles on Tesla's inventions and patents; journals,
newspapers, and publications on Tesla and his work; and audio/visual materials including
—
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would tinker with electrical devices. Fascinated with how
electrical technology was transforming ; the way people lived,
nobody ifihis life codld have iflflueheed'ken mordlhan Nikola
Tesla—inventor of the AC (alternating current) induction
motor, x-rays, vacuum tube amplifier, wireless radio and of
course, the Tesla Coil.
As a young man, Ken worked for a time in various
amusement parks across the nation that utilized the new
electric motors that powered many of the attractions. It was
there that he learned electrical mechanics and was further able
to develop his skills (including photography) when he entered
the Marine Corps in 1918 during the First World War. After
the war, he was urged to persue his talents by fellow electrical
enthusiast Hugo Gemsback (well-known publisher and in¬
ventor of the time) and Ken entered an amatuer electrical
experiment contest. Anticipating what would be his future
Ken won first prize and a photo of him standing next to his
electrical gizmos appeared in the November, 1919 issue of the
“Electrical Experimenter” magazine.
After this small victory, Ken heeded to the calling “go west.
He was known as "Mf. Electric” around the back lots of
nearly every major Holly wood studio for over fifty years. With
creative bursts of alternating currents that emanated from the
machines he made, this visionary electrical engineer forever
forged in our minds that image of an eternal life-giving force
harnessed from the heavens beginning with FRANKEN¬
STEIN (1931). His machines—if put in the hands of extraor¬
dinary evil despots—could easily destroy mankind as in THE
MASK OF FU MANCHU (1932).
His innovative equipment would not only serve to modern¬
ize the look of Gothic horror and science fiction forever, but
also tap into the latent fears society had in understanding the
ramifications of this new power. This special effects genius
created the instruments that served the “mad” scientists of over
100 motion pictures, serials and television programs com¬
bined. His gadgets can be seen in motion pictures from the
silent era to the Golden age and beyond. A science teacher
with an amazing sense of humor, he remained busy until his
death in 1984 at the age of 87. His creations set a standard in
Hollywood special effects and his influence is still felt in films
today.
watt went before
FAH01IS fVIOMSTERS OF FILMLAND
p
|ff|l would tinker with electrical devices. Fascinated with how
5)' | electrical technology was transformingjhe way people lived,
[6®6f tidbody it) his life coifld have ififiuencedKen moreihan Nikola
Tesla—inventor of the AC (alternating current) induction
motor, x-rays, vacuum tube amplifier, wireless radio and, of
course, the Tesla Coil.
As a young man, Ken worked for a time in various
amusement parks across the nation that utilized the new
electric motors that powered many of the attractions. It was
there that he learned electrical mechanics and was further able
to develop his skills (including photography) when he entered
the Marine Corps in 1918 during the First World War. After
the war, he was urged to persue his talents by fellow electrical
enthusiast Hugo Gemsback (well-known publisher and in¬
ventor of the time) and Ken entered an amatuer electrical
experiment contest. Anticipating what would be his future
Ken won first prize and a photo of him standing next to his
electrical gizmos appeared in the November, 1919 issue of the
“Electrical Experimenter” magazine.
After this small victory, Ken heeded to the calling “go west,
young man” and once again in a Ford jalopy, he traveled cross¬
country (when it literally took weeks to make the trek), often
sleeping wherever he could find space (haystacks, open fields
and even in the car). Ken loved to enhance his education with
hands on experience. He not only worked as an aeronautical
mechanic, but in his own time he constructed various electrical
instruments in his garage that were based on the designs of
Tesla, often using whatever spare parts were lying around.
Airplane, bicycle, and scrap industrial parts all found their way
into his creations and eventually onto the silver screen. Often
he would lovingly personify his “electrical children” with very
funny and pretentious names.
watt went before
Bom in Montana in 1896, Kenneth Joseph Strickfaden
even as a young child had a mindset for science, technology
and adventure. While in his teens, his parents divorced and
Ken andhis dadrelocated to Santa Monica, California, making
the drive in a model-TFord. In high school Ken showedadeep
passion for chemistry and physics and in his spare time he
FAMOUS MONSTERS OF FILMLAND
LIGHT
COLOR
SOUND
MUSIC
ELECTRICITY
MAGNETROCIOUS MAGNIFICATION
GYROSCOPES
EDUCATED NOISES
Front panel from a 1960s brochure for Ken Strickfaden’s science show in Santa Monica, California.
FAMOUS MONSTERS OF FILMLAND
MAGIC MELODYNE MUSIC
JUST-INTONED PHOTO-CELL ORGAN
MUSIC OP THE SPHERES
HARMONEYE
22
Dr. Mannering (Patric Knowles) reactivates the Frankenstein factory to end the curse of the Wolf Man (Lon Chaney
Jr.). At right is the undying monster (Eddie Parker doubling for Bela Lugosi) in FRANKENSTEIN MEETS THE WOLF
MAN (Universal, 1943).
In 1921 Ken married Gladys Ward and together they had
two daughters, Carol and Marilyn. After working many years
trying to support his family with dead-end jobs, the young
pioneer started maintaining the electrical equipment owned by
the flourishing movie industry in Hollywood. One of the first
films that Ken worked on was WINGS (1927)—a silent war
epic that won the very first Oscar for “Best Picture.”
RETURN OF SHERLOCK HOLMES (1929) was the first
motion picture to incorporate one of his creations, and Ken’s
machines were showcased to great effect in 1930’s IUST
IMAGINE.
"here in these machines^."
What one must understand from a historical perspective is
that popular culture is greatly affected by the technologies of
its day. In the late 1920s, the industrial-age aesthetic had
permeated everything: art, design, architecture, advertising
and film. Some movements were positive in their approach as
with Art Deco and Ait Moderne, while others were more
fearful as to what the machine age coupled with modern
science would bring society, as with German Expressionism
and The Dada movements in Europe. It was this new machine
age visual that probably influenced lames Whale and his
associates in the production of FRANKENSTEIN, more so
than Shelley’s novel.
Ken Strickfaden was in the right place at the right time to see
his inventions incorporated into the Universal production. His
good fortune was predicated upon that old theorem of oppor¬
tunity and preparedness equals success.
“I learned a great deal from you at the university,” Henry
Frankenstein tells Dr. W aldman.“... about the violet ray... the
ultraviolet ray!—which you said was the highest color in the
spectrum. You were wrong. Here in these machines I have
gone beyond that. I have discovered the great ray that first
brought life into the world.” Perhaps those memorable lines
are more prophetic than we realize.
“Electricity is life,” Strickfaden once told an interviewer.
“We are just a bunch of sparks with various quantities of
air.” Certainly medical science has confirmed that. High
voltage shocks are used to resuscitate a stopped heart and
anyone who has ever recoiled in pain after having walked
across a statically-charged carpet and become a human
“lightning rod” knows we all have a potent electrical network
integrated into our systems.
nature's fury
When asked about Iris contributions to Universal Pictures, he
said dismissively, “ The styling all depended on whatjunk I had
on hand!”
The electrical apparatus Strickfaden employed was exceed¬
ingly dangerous to say the least. lacob’s ladder, gyros, fire rings,
rotary spark gaps and Tesla’s coil were devices that generated
tremendous voltage quite capable of killing someone. No
wonder that during production of FRANKENSTEIN, Boris
Karloff developed both a tremendous fear and respect for the
apparatus which sparked and flashed around him as he lay half-
naked on the laboratory table.
Vividly recalling the spark bums he sustained from stray
embers, Boris actually refused to be involved in any way, shape
or form with one of Ken’s machines during filming of THE
FAMOUS MONSTERS OF FILMLAND
23
Mirror image—First Frankenstein Karloff (here playing Dr. Gustav Neinmann) comes face to face with his past in the
person of Glenn Strange (the final Universal Frankenstein) in HOUSE OF FRANKENSTEIN. (Universal, 1944.)
MASK OF FU MANCHU. The scene called for a generated
quarter-million volt lightning bolt to dance over his fingertips,
The crew assured Boris thatno harm would come to himfor they
had rigged a wire that would travel from his hand, up his arm,
down his leg and then ground out to the floor. Boris refused to
the point of shutting down production for the day.
It was decided that in order to keep production moving, Ken
would have to act as Karloff’s stand in. It is actually a heroic
Ken playing Fu Manchu in the scenes with his equipment! But
because of a faulty ground, Ken nearly was electrocuted during
the filming. According to accounts from members of the crew,
the shock actually blew him off his feet, sent him flying through
the ah' to finally land on his back. At first the crew thought he
was killed, but fortunately he was only stunned and winded, and
they were able to resuscitate him.
But even with such unfortuante mishaps, Strickfaden had
found his niche and stalled to group his machines together
realizing he could free-lance renting his equipment out to the
different studios that needed his special services. His next films,
CHANDU THE MAGICIAN for Fox (1932) and Universal
BRIDE OF FRANKENSTEIN (1935) further cemented his
unique style.
high-diarged diffhangers
The motion picture serial enjoyed much success before the
advent of television. “To be continued,” at the end of a film not
only meant more fantasy fun for moviegoers but also guaranteed
consistent box-office for the motion picture industry. By this
time Strickfaden’s equipment was in high demand and over the
next decade it appeared in a variety of now-classic serials among
them FLASH GORDON, BUCK ROGERS THE SHADOW,
THE LOST CITY, THE CLUTCHING HAND, THE PHAN¬
TOM EMPIRE, THE MYSTERIOUS DR. SATAN and THE
UNDERSEA KINGDOM. All of these serials dealt exten¬
sively with high-tech conflicts between good and evil embodied
by the machines and matched with the personalities of the men
that controlled them.
ken-etic energy
It was around this time in the early 1930’s that Ken took all
of his equipment and created the “Kenstric” Science Show.
Basically a “science demonstration” stalling the machines he
created, his show explored electrical fundamentals and prin¬
ciples. Ken toured with his show across the United States and
Canada and is reported to have lectured over 1,000 times. A born
risk taker, Ken had succeeded in establishing a second career
with his tours. He was determined to be a positive force in
educating people about the benefits of science. Ken believed in
an altruistic approach to understanding technology—that just
because we lived in a capitalist society didn’t mean that the
advancements made had to be motivated out of greed and
power. That belief helped keep his services in demand even
24
FAHSOUS MONSTERS OF FILMLAND
when Ms gadgets were not the obvious stars of a scene as Ms
major projects at the end of the 1930s attest.
Strickfaden macMnes were again at the forefront in 1939’s
SON OF FRANKENSTEIN but he also contributed that same
year to MGM’s THE WIZARD OF OZ and Disney ’ s FANTA¬
SIA the followmg year. While Ms work is well known on
UM versal’s tlrird Frankenstein film, the other two films utilized
his uMque special effects talents to enhance the productions.
In 1953 Ken was involved in Paramount’s sci-fi masterpiece,
WAR OF THE WORLDS. With the world now well into the
atomic age and space travel was no longer considered “that
crazy Buck Rogers stuff.” Thus the film version directed by
legendary puppet-ammation maestro George Pal modernized
the 1898 story by HG Wells and brought the invading Martians
into America’s postwar- consciousness. Specifically what
Strickfaden’s actual contributions were in tliis film are not well
known, however it is a distinct possibility that those death-ray
sparks emanating from the Martian war macMnes have Ken’s
hand in them.
decfridty in the air!
Although Television itself had been around since the early
20th century, it wasn’t until the 1950’s that commercial televi¬
sion became a major media force. Both radio and the motion
picture industry reeled in the wake of its emerging power.
Although the maj orfilm studios felt aloss ofrevenue, Strickfaden,
as an free agent, prospered as Ms services were now needed by
the young and strong television networks well into the next
decade. Pick any sitcom, commercial, space show, variety show
or creature feature of the era and chances are pretty good that
Ken’s mad scientist equipment is seen on screen at onetime or
another. “Captain Video”, “Space Patrol”, “Tom Corbett—
Space Cadet” and “The Munsters”, to name a few, all used
Strickfaden’s magic.
a career recharged
By the end of the 1960s it was becoming apparent that
Strickfaden’s devices were becoming outdated. With fast-
developing computer technology the world of creative
“real-time” special effects were being retired in favor of
“better, faster, cheaper” digital technologies.
Then, in 1971, shlockmeister A1 Adamson rented much of
the electrical lab equipment originally used in FRANKEN¬
STEIN for his next film. Strickfaden was more than willing
to supply his machines so for a song, he dusted of his
equipment for use in the new film. Stirckfaden’s contribu¬
tions are inarguably the highlight of the otherwise dismal
DRACULA VS. FRANKENSTEIN.
In 1973 Strickfaden’s equipment hummed and crackled
in the exploitation film, BLACKENSTEIN. Young mov¬
iegoers might never have truly appreciated the genius and
power of Ken’s machines but fortunately Hollywood has its
.fair share of personalities that not only recall but cherish the
genius of the Ghoulden age. Thus Strickfaden was given a
chance to shine again in Mel Brooks ’ monsterpiece, YOUNG
FRANKENSTEIN (1974).
By the 1980s, computer technology—particularly ad¬
vanced by George Lucas’ STAR WARS—had become the
(Above) Two of Strickfaden’s more widely used devices.
(Below) Shooting on the set of THE WIZARD OF OZ
(MGIW, 1939.) Note the heavily blimped camera on the
crane in the center of the foto.
“I’ll thank you to refer to it as a ‘Transmutation Atomic Growth Mechanism’ and not a ‘flood light reflector’ and no—
you can’t have it right now. You’ll just have to watch ‘Tom Terrific’ without it!” Poor Bela may not have had benefit
of super Strickfaden devices in his later years but we can’t think of anyone who could have worked with an Ed Wood
budget and still managed to stay so deftly in character! (Bela Lugosi (Dr. Vornoff), Jack Warren (Jake), Tor Johnson
(Lobo) BRIDE OF THE MONSTER, Filmakers Releasing Org., 1956)
standard for special effects. Strickfaden—now in his eight¬
ies—had a unique appreciation of what harnessed electricity
could do and was very excited about this new technology. In
1981, The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
sponsored an event in Ken’s honor that blended his film
career with his science show in “The Magic Machines of Ken
Strickfaden.” Much to his delight, hundreds of horror and
science fiction fans turned up for the show and Ken received
a deafening ovation.
Ken passed away just shy of his 88th birthday. What is
immeasurably interesting about Strickfaden’s life is obvi¬
ous; it is his work in film and his loving passion for
humanity and science yet not much has been written on the
man. Harry Goldman, an electrical engineer and longtime
friend of Strickfaden, has assembled a much-anticipated
biography titled “Dr. Frankenstein’s Electrician”
(McFarland Publishing). This book promises to contain a
lot of insight on the man, rare personal unpublished photos
and reveals the fate of his equipment.
a cinematic ben franklin
As with any pioneer, Ken laid the groundwork that
shaped electrical special effects in the cinema. His basic
designs of his machines have not changed since he first created
them. Strickfaden had the wherewithal to transform his
creativity into complex yet tangible objects and his contribu¬
tions to horror and science fiction cinema remain invaluable.
A classic is measured by its ability to stand up over time and
it is undeniable that Ken Strickfaden added the “sparks” that
continue to sustain the life of the classics. In the end,
Strickfaden was very right: “Electricity IS life!”
This is the first in a special series we will be bringing you on
the technical aspects of Ghoulden age movie making with an
emphasis on “how they did it.” You’ll be amazed at how the
“pioneers” of cinema created the world’s most legendary
films with no road map, no computers, little money and no
idea of how they were going to make the impossible a screen
reality!—RF
26
FAMOUS MONSTERS OF FILMLAND
Strickfaden’s high water mark—the impressive lab where Dr. Pretorius (Ernest Thesiger) and Henry (Colin Clive) performed
the unholy experiment. Note the figure of Ludwig (Ted Billings) standing in the aperture by the top of the towering “cosmic
diffuser” which reaches up several stories above the sound stage floor. (BRIDE OF FRANKENSTEIN, Universal, 1935.)
FAMOUS MONSTERS OF FILMLAND 27
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228
ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTER
July, 1919
Fig. 2. Small Tesla Coil for
gas engine ignition and similar
uses
F-l g . 5 .
Later type
of Tesla
Trans*
former
Fig. 4.
Tesla Os¬
cillator In
action,
generating
undamped
waves
Fig. 6.
Small os-
catlatorfor
production
of ozone
Fig. I. Os¬
cillator
with de-
t achable
trans¬
former
for experf-
mental
purposes
Fig. 7. Largo Tesla
Transformer for various
purposes
Fig. 8. Tesla Transformer
with rotary break for
wireless
Fig. 9. Tesla
Transformer
with mercury
interrupter
F I g. 10.
Large
Tesla
Trans¬
former
with her*
m ctlcal I y
sealed mer¬
cury inter¬
rupter
Fig. 12.
Ano t her
type of
Tesla
Trans-
former with
sealed mer¬
cury Inter¬
rupter
Fig. II. Tesla Transformer
with sealed mercury interrupter
for low tension work
P s
-. ; . .--——-—-
Fig. 3. Tesla Transformer, 12
Inch spark, chiefly for wireless =
Lpr-r.;-. -—--
July, 1919
ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTER
; 229
Electrical Oscillators
F EW fields'have been opened up the
exploration of which has proved as
fruitful as that of high frequency
currents. Their singular properties
and the spectacular character of the
phenomena they presented immediately
commanded universal attention. Scientific
Fig. 13—Tesla Oscillator with Magnetically
Controlled, Sealed Mercury interrupter.
men became interested, in-..their.investiga-
■ t-ion, engineers were attracted by their com-
. mercial possibilities, and physicians recog¬
nized in them a long-sought means for ef¬
fective treatment of bodily ills. Since the
publication of my first researches in 1891,
hundreds of volumes have been written on
the subject and many invaluable, results ob-
; tained thru the medium of this new agency.
Yet, the art is only in its infancy: and
the: future has incomparably bigger things
in store.
From the very, beginning I felt the neces¬
sity of producing efficient apparatus to meet
a rapidly growing demand and during the
eight years succeeding my original an-
! nouncements .1 developed not less than fifty
types of these transformers or electrical
oscillators, each complete in every detail
and refined to such a degree that I cotdd
; not materially improve any one of them
’ today. Had I been, guided by practical
. considerations I might have built up. an im-
MI HO LA TE-SLA
\J R. TESLA makes a very
important contribution
to the electrical arts with this
article.
The pioneer of all high fre¬
quency apparatus divulges
much that is new and start¬
ling in these pages. Few peo¬
ple realize the enormous
value of Mr. Tesla’s machines
and the many different im¬
portant uses to which they
can be applied in our every¬
day lives. New and startling
uses are being found every
year for these machines.
It is characteristic of Mr.
Tesla that he has developed
and actually built an astound¬
ing variation of these ma¬
chines, and we regret that
we can publish only a very
few of the more important
models.
Most of the Tesla coils
shown have never been pub-
lisht before. — EDITOR.
menseand profitable business, incidentally
rendering important. services to the. world.
But the force of circumstances and the
ever enlarging, vista of greater achieve¬
ments. turned, my efforts in other direc¬
tions..: And so it conies that instruments
will shortly be placed- on the market, which,
oddly .enough, were perfected twenty years
ago! ?
These oscillators a>re expressly intended
to operate on direct and. alternating light¬
ing circuits, and to generate damped and ’
undamped, oscillations' or currents.' of any
frequency,, volume and 1 tension within the
widest, limits. They are compact,, self-con¬
tained, require no care: for. long: periods of
time and will be found' very convenient and
useful for various purposes as, wireless
telegraphy and telephony; conversion of
electrical energy; formation of chemical
compounds thru fusion and combina¬
tion; synthesis of gases; manufacture of
ozone; lighting; welding; municipal, hos¬
pital, and domestic sanitation and steriliza¬
tion, and numerous other applications in
scientific laboratories and industrial institu¬
tions. While these transformers have never
been described before, the general principles
underlying them were fully set forth in my
publisht articles and patents, more par-
SPECIAL NOTICE
Last month we announced another
= special feature article by Mr. Tesla, =
^ which altho made in good faith by us ^
= was not authorized by him. Due to
.- very important duties of Mr. Tesla, it ^
was impossible for him to furnish his fgj
= historical article this month, so the pf
= special feature article publisht on this m
= page takes its place. An important ^
U= historical article will appear in the
. August issue.— Editor, =
^ll|[|III!!lllililllllilllll!lllllllllllililil!i!iilllllll!lll!llill!lllllllllll!lllll!lllllllllllliill!!HIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^^
ticularly those of September 22, 1896, and
it is thought, therefore, that the appended
photographs of a few types, together with
a short explanation, will convey all the in¬
formation that may be desired.
The essential parts of such an oscillator-
are: a condenser, a self-induction coil for
Fig. 15 — Tesla Transformer with Gravity
controlled, Sealed Mercury Interrupter.
charging the same to a high potential, a
circuit controller, and a transformer which
is energized by the oscillatory discharges
of the condenser. There are at least three,
but usually four, five or six, circuits in
tune and the regulation is effected in sev¬
eral. ways, most frequently merely by means
of an adjusting screw. Under, favorable
conditions an efficiency as high as 85% is
attainable, that is to say, that percentage of
the energy supplied Can.be recovered in the
secondary of the transformer.. While the
chief, virtue of this kind of apparatus is
obviously due to.- the wonderful, powers of
the condenser,, special qualities result from
concatenation of circuits under observance
of accurate harmonic: relations, and. mini¬
mization of frictional: and other losses
which has: been one of the principal ob¬
jects of the design,'
(Continued- on page 259)
Fig, 16—Electrical Oscillator, Illus¬
trated in Fig. 15, Showing Details of
._I Cl — I, MlnnUnKliom ,
Electrical
Oscillators
By Nikola Tesla
(Continued from page 229)
Broadly, the instruments can be divided
into two classes one dn which the circuit
controller comprises solid contacts, and the
other in which the make and break is ef¬
fected by mercury. Figures 1 to 8, inclu¬
sive, belong to the first, and the remaining
ones to the second class. The former are
t capable of an appreciably higher efficiency
on account of the fact that the losses in¬
volved in the make and break are reduced
to the minimum and the resistance com¬
ponent of the damping factor is very small.
The latter are preferable for purposes re¬
quiring larger output and a great 'number
of breaks per second. The operation of
the motor and circuit controller of course
consumes a certain amount of energy
which, however, is the less significant the
larger the capacity of the machine.
In Fig. 1 is shown one of the earliest
forms of oscillator constructed for experi¬
mental purposes. The condenser is con¬
tained in a square box of mahogany upon
which is mounted the self-induction or
charging coil wound, as will be noted, in
two sections connected in multiple or series
according to. whether the tension of the
supply circuit is 110 or 220 volts. From the
box protrude four brass columns carrying
a plate with the spring contacts and adjust¬
ing screws as well as two massive terminals
for the reception of the primary of the
transformer. Two of the columns serve
as condenser connections while the other
pair is employed to join, the binding posts
of the switch in front to the self-induct¬
ance and condenser. The primary coil con¬
sists of a few turns of copper ribbon to the
ends of which are soldered short rods fit¬
ting into the terminals referred to. The
secondary is made, in two parts, wound in
a manner to reduce as much as possible the
distributed capacity and at the same time
enable the coil to withstand a very high
pressure between its terminals at the cen¬
ter, which are connected to binding posts
on two rubber columns projecting from the
primary. The circuit connections may be
slightly varied but ordinarily they are as
diagrammatically illustrated in the Elec¬
trical Experimenter for May on page 89,
relating to my oscillation transformer
photograph of which appeared on page 16
of the same number. The operation is as
follows: When the switch is thrown on,
the current from the supply circuit rushes
thru the self-induction coil, magnetizing
the iron core within and separating the con¬
tacts of the controller. The high tension
induced current then charges the condenser
and upon closure of the contacts the ac¬
cumulated energy is released thru the
primary, giving rise to a long series of os¬
cillations which excite the tuned secondary
circuit.
Th’is device has proved highly serviceable
in carrying on laboratory experiments of
all kinds. For instance, in studying phe¬
nomena of impedance, the transformer was
removed and a bent copper bar inserted in
the terminals. The latter was often re¬
placed by a large circular loop to exhibit
inductive effects at a distance or to excite
resonant circuits used in various investiga¬
tions and measurements. A transformer
suitable for any desired performance could
be readily improvised and attached to the
terminals and in this way much time and
labor was saved. Contrary to what might
be naturally expected, little trouble was ex¬
perienced with the contacts, altho the cur¬
rents thru them were heavy, namely, proper
conditions of resonance existing, the great
flow occurs only when the. circuit is closed
and no destructive arcs can develop. Origi-
have gaged the accuracy of the
world’s work for thirty-nine
years.
Manufacturers, toolmakers, machin¬
ists and mechanics in all trades, rely
upon this precision.
Illustrated catalog No. 21LE sent free upon request.
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260
ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTER
July, 1919
cS %4h,
'TSitci.li-tif
^brsonat3%ppearance-
3%ll Demand
The
STERLING
HIGH FREQUENCY
VIOLET RAY
Specially de-
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fitted to work
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covers the Ser¬
vices of a ser¬
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nerve and beauty specialist—all
in one, ready for Instant service.
The Sterling Violet Ray is invalu¬
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“spring in your step” and creates a
clear eye and brain.
Sterling Violet Ray Generators are
based upon the original discoveries of
Nikola Tesla, but have been developed
to the highest state of perfection ever
reached by Mr. Anthony Longoria,
whose long years of practical experi¬
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position, he holds.
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. ernrV.......... STATE.
nally I employed platinum and iridium
tips but later replaced them by some of
meteorite and finally of tungsten. The last
have given the best satisfaction, permitting
working for hours and days without in¬
terruption.
Fig. 2 illustrates a small oscillator de¬
signed for certain specific uses. The under¬
lying idea was to attain great activities dur¬
ing minute intervals of time each succeeded
by a comparatively long period of inaction.
With this object a large self-induction and
a quick-acting break were employed owing
to which arrangement the condenser was
charged to a very high potential. Sudden
secondary currents and sparks of great vol¬
ume were thus obtained, eminently suit¬
able for welding thin wires, flashing lamp
filaments, igniting explosive mixtures and
kindred applications. The instrument was
also adapted for battery use and in this
form was a very effective igniter for gas
engines on which a patent bearing number
609,250 was granted to me August 16, 1898.
Fig. 3 represents a large oscillator of the
first class intended for wireless experi¬
ments, ■ production of Rontgen rays and
scientific research iri general. It comprises
a box containing two condensers of the
same capacity on which are supported the
charging coil and transformer. The auto¬
matic circuit controller, hand switch and
connecting posts are mounted on the front
plate of the inductance spool as is also one
of the contact springs. The condenser box
is equipt with three terminals, the two
external ones serving merely for connection
while the middle one carries a contact bar
with a screw for regulating the interval
during which the circuit is closed. The vi¬
brating _ spring itself, the sole function of
which is to cause periodic interruptions,
can be adjusted in its strength as well as
distance from the iron core in the center
of the charging coil by four screws visible
on the top plate' so that any desired condi¬
tions of mechanical control might be se¬
cured, The primary coil of the transformer
is of copper sheet and taps are made at
suitable points for the purpose of vanning,
at will, the number of turns. As in Fig.
1 the Inductance coil is wound in two sec¬
tions to adapt the instrument both to 110
and 220 volt circuits and several second¬
aries were provided to suit the various
wave lengths of the primary. The output
was approximately; 500 watt with damped
waves of about 50J000 cycles per second.
For short periods of time undamped, oscil¬
lations were produced in screwing the vi¬
brating sprrng tight against the iron core
and separating the contacts by the adjust¬
ing screw which also performed the func¬
tion of a key. With this oscillator I made
a number of important observations and it
was one of the machines exhibited at a
lecture before the New York Academy of
Sciences in 1897.
Fig. 4 is a photograph of a type of trans¬
former in every respect similar to the one
illustrated in the May, 1919, issue of the
Electrical Experimenter, to which , refer¬
ence has already; been made, It contains
the identical essential parts, disposed in like
manner, but was specially designed for use
on supply circuits’ of higher tension, from
220 to 500 volts or more. The usual ad¬
justments are made in setting the contact
spring and shifting the iron core within the
inductance coii up and down by means of
two screws. In order to prevent injury
thru a short-circuit, fuses are inserted in
the lines. The instrument was photo¬
graphed in action,. generating undamped
oscillations from a 220 volt lighting circuit.
Fig. 5 shows a later form of transformer
principally intended to replace Rhumkorf
coils. In this instance a primary is em¬
ployed, having a much greater number of
turns and the secondary is closely linked
with the same. The currents developed in
the latter, having a tension of from 10,000
to 30,000 volts, are used to charge con-
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ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTER
July, iv iv
276
Electrical Oscillators
B57 NiRoSa- Tesl^.
construction but the core and contact
spring are both adjustable as before.
Fig. 6 is a small instrument o'f'this type,
particularly intended, for ozone production
or sterilization. It is remarkably efficient
I"jg. 17. Tesla Transformer With
Mercury Controller.
larger transformer of this kind,
struction and disposition of the
before but there are two conder
box, one of which is connected
cuit as in the previous cases,
other is in shunt to the. primal
against the wheel, thus making and break■
18. Tesla Transformer With Mercury
Jet Interrupter.
contact about 1,000 times per second.
instrument works silently and, owing to
absence of all deteriorating agents.,
is continually clean and in perfect con-
>n. The number of interruptions per
nd may be much greater, however,, so
o make the. currents suitable for wire-
telephony and like purposes,
modified form of oscillator is rcpre-
ed in Figs. IS and 16, the former being
ihotosrranhic view and the latter a
densers and operate an independent high
frequency coil as customary. The control-
mechanism is of somewhat different
and contact
as before.
Adjustable
kind. The con-
of the parts, is as
condensers, in the
which is. connected in the cir-
the previous cases, while the
in shunt to the. primary coil. In
mis manner currents of great volume are
produced in the latter and the secondary
effects are accordingly magnified. The in¬
troduction of an additional tuned circuit
secures also other advantages but . the ad¬
justments. are rendered more difficult and
for this reason it is desirable to use such
an instrument in the production of currents
of a definite and unchanging frequency.
Fig. 8 illustrates a transformer with
rotary break. There are two condensers
of the same capacity in the box which can
be connected in series or multiple. The
■charging, inductances are in the form of
two long spools upon which are supported
the secondary terminals. A small direct
current motor, the speed of which can be
varied within wide limits, is employed to
drive a specially constructed make and
break. In . other features the'oscillator is
like the one illustrated in Fig. 3 and its
operation will be readily understood from
the foregoing. This transformer was used
in my wireless experiments and frequently
also for lighting the laboratory by my vac¬
uum tubes and was likewise exhibited at
my lecture before the New York Academy
of Sciences above mentioned.
, Coming now to machines of the second
class, Fig. 9 shows an oscillatory trans¬
former comprising a condenser and charg¬
ing inductance enclosed in a box, a trans¬
former and a mercury' circuit controller,
the latter being of a construction described
for the first time in my patent No. 609,251
of August 16, 1898. . It consists of a motor
driven hollow pulley containing a small
quantity , of mercury which is thrown out-,
wo-rrUvr n (TQi'nct ixrnllc rvf flip 1W
. (Continued from page 260)
centrifugal force and entrains a contact
wheel which periodically closes and opens
the condenser circuit. By means of adjust¬
ing screws above the pulley, the depth of
immersion of the vanes and consequently,
also, the duration of each contact can be '
varied at desire and thus the intensity of .
the effects and their character controlled.
This form of break has given thoro satis¬
faction, working continuously with currents
of from 20 to 25 amperes. The number
of interruptions is usually from 500 to
1,000 per second but higher frequencies are
practicable. The space occupied is about
10" x 8" x 10" and the output approximate¬
ly K.W.
In the transformer just described the
break is exposed to the atmosphere and a
slow oxidation of the mercury takes place.
This disadvantage is overcome in the in¬
strument shown in Fig. 10, which consists
of a perforated metal box containing the
condenser and charging inductance and
carrying on the top a motor driving the
break, and a transformer. The mercury
break is of a kind to be described and
operates on the principle of a jet which
establishes, intermittently, contact with a
rotating wheel in the interior of the pulley.
The stationary parts are supported in the
vessel on a bar passing thru the long
hollow shaft of the motor and a mercury
seal is employed to effect hermetic closure
of the chamber enclosing the circuit con¬
troller. The current is led into the interior
of the pulley thru two sliding rings on
the top which are in series with the con¬
denser and primary’. The exclusion of the
oxygen is a decided improvement, the de¬
terioration of the metal and attendant
trouble being eliminated and perfect work¬
ing conditions continuously maintained..
Fig. 11 is a photograph of a similar
oscillator with hermetically inclosed mer¬
cury break. In this machine the. stationary
parts of the interrupter in the interior of
the pulley were supported on a tube thru
which was led an insulated wire connect¬
ing to one terminal of the break while the
other was in contact with the vessel. The
sliding rings were, in this manner, avoided
and the construction simplified. The in¬
strument was designed for oscillations of
lower tension and frequency requiring pri¬
mary currents of comparatively- smaller
amperage and was used to excite other
resonant circuits.
Fig. 12 shows an improved form of oscil¬
lator of the kind described in Fig. 10, in
which the supporting bar thru the hol¬
low motor shaft was done away with, the
device pumping the mercury being kept in
position by gravity, as will be more fully
explained with reference to another figure.
Both the capacity of the condenser and
primary turns were made variable with the
view of producing oscillations of several
frequencies.
Fig. 13 is a photographic view of another
form of oscillatory transformer with her¬
metically sealed mercury interrupter, and
Fig. 14 diagrams showing the circuit con¬
nections and arrangement of parts repro¬
duced from, my patent. No. 609,245, of
August 16, 1898, describing this particular
device. The condenser, inductance,, trans¬
former and circuit controller are disposed
as before, but the latter is. of different con¬
struction, which will be clear from an
inspection of Fig. 14. The hollow pulley a
is secured to a shaft c which is mounted
in a vertical bearing passing thru the
stationary field magnet d of the motor. In
the interior of the vessel is supported, on
frictionless bearings, a body A of magnetic
material which is surrounded by a. dome, b
in the center of a laminated iron ring, with
nnle nieces nn -wound with energizing coils
p. The ring is supported on four columns
and, when magnetized, keeps the body h in
position while the pulley is rotated. The
latter is of steel, but the dome is preferably
made of German silver burnt black by acid
or nickeled. The body h carries a short
tube k bent, as indicated, to catch the fluid
as it is whirled around, and project it
against the teeth of a -wheel fastened to the
pulley. This wheel, is insulated and contact
from it to the external circuit is established
thru a mercury cup. As the pulley is
• <1 J - 1 - i a X 4-1. c H,, , /I 4 n 4*Vl 4*A4T41*>
With Mercury
• second.
owing to
agents,
' con-
mg
The
the
keeps .
dition.
second
as
VS '
sented in Figs. ... .
a photographic view. ;- ,
diagrammatic illustration showing the ar¬
rangement of the interior parts of the
controller. In this instance the shaft b
carrying the vessel a- is hollow and sup¬
ports, in ffictionless bearings, a spindle j
to which is fastened a weight k. Insulated
from the latter, but mechanically fixt to
it, is a curved arm L upon which is supr
ported, freely rotatable, a break-wheel with
projections QQ. The wheel is in electrical
connection with the external circuit thru
a mercury cup and an insulated plug sup¬
ported from the top of the. pulley. Owing
to the inclined position of the motor the
weight k keeps the break-wheelin' place by
the force of gravity and as the pulley is
rotated the circuit, including the condenser
and primary coil of the transformer, is
rapidly made and broken.
Fig. 17 shows a similar instrument in
which, however, the make and break, device
is a jet of mercury impinging, against an
insulated toothed wheel carried on an insu¬
lated stud in the center of the cover of the
pulley as shown. Connection to the con¬
denser circuit is made by brushes bearing
on this plug.
' Fig. 18 is a photograph of another trans¬
former with a mercury circuit. controller
of the wheel type, modified in some features
on which it is unnecessary to dwell.
These are but a few of the oscillatory
transformers I have perfected, and consti¬
tute only a small part of my high frequency-
apparatus of which I hope to give a full
description, when I. shall have freed myself
TESLA COIL BUILDERS ASSOCIATION
3 AMY LANE
QUEENSBURY, NEW YORK, 12804
(518) 792-1003
August 24, 2006
Hello Jeff,
Received your surprise package and communication. The many
photo/illustrations and info will be reviewed several times. I
do appreciate you looking into that mysterious light bulb/spark gap
as I could make neither head nor tail out of it. I think the guy was
just spinning the reporter a bit. But then, if anyone can resolve it I m
sure it will be you.
I've been bogged down with several projects that seem to be going
nowhere fast so I probably won't get to the violet ray experiment this
summer.
I haven't heard from Gary Peterson for some time but during our last
communication, he said he would be giving a lecture at the Tesla conference
being held in Brookhaven, NY (I think that's where it is being held). I
didn't know that Steve Elswick is still in the Tesla promoting business.
We weren't on very good terms for several reasons. As I recall, his
character was questionable (but I'll not go into it now). But if you are
being paid for providing services, I'd suggest you get your money up front.
I was shocked to learn that the old Electrical Experimenter magazines
are so valuable (especially those with a connection to Tesla). I see them
on Ebay every once in a while but the prices usually run$30-40. Guess I 11
have to put mine on the market (someday).
I have always been intrigued by Tesla's "Egg of Columbus" demo. Back
in my early teaching career, I attempted to replicate it with lower power
inputs. An engineer told me that Tesla used a lot of power to get the result
and that a "huge" capacitor was needed. Subsequently, I really didn't make
much headway (until returning to the problem years later). Actually, very
little power is needed, and that "huge" capacitor was not as huge as I
expected. I even wrote up an article on it. The only problem I had was
to find a metal egg. One day, as I was working with some steel wool, the
light went on. I immediately took a plastic Easter egg and stuffed it with
steel wool. Voila! It works, (see enclosed photos).
I'll be leaving tomorrow for Ed Wingate's Teslathon in Brockport, NY
(western part of the state). I'll let you know if there is anything worth
talking about.
TESLA ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTERS
3 AMY LANE
QUEENSBURY, NEW YORK 12804
(518) 792-1003
January 9, 2009
Jeff Behary,
Received your holiday email and follow-up package of photos. Thanks
for keeping in contact. It's always interesting seeing the amazing apparatus
in your collection. I've remarked to Ruth that if we ever get to Florida that
I would make it my objective to visit your Turn of the Century Electrotherapy
Museum.
We're now in the middle of our winter months and all activity has come to
a halt. My most active exercise is trying to find a warm corner in the house.
It's been very cold here. Also, we get a regular visit by snow storms. Got
a guest room in your Museum (ha)? I'll polish all of your discharge spheres
in lieu of payment of rent, (more laughs).
The bad news is that I've had some health problems that prevent me from
making any progress in experimentation. An MRI showed no stroke, tumor, or
abberations. And the docs don't know if anything can be done. Ruth does
all the driving as I have also developed a condition of double vision. New
glasses haven't helped. I must do my typing and reading with one eye covered.
The good news is that the days are getting longer. I feel better already.
You may have noticed that Cameron Prince has digitized all of the TCBA
newsletters and made them available on line (for free) to anyone who wishes
to read or download them. Just the other day, a friend notified me that
there was a controversy on the Teslanet regarding Elihu Thomson and Nikola
Tesla. Why argue about it when I covered the discussion completely in
Volume 10, #2. One TC writer wanted to know the capacitance of Thomson's
large Tesla coil. That's covered in the same issue, too. So, Cameron has
done coilers a great favor with his website.
Can you provide any news regarding Robert Campbell's book. I was hoping
to see it in print by this time.
I apologize for n5$ being able to reciprocate with equally interesting
photos. Wishing you and your family a healthy and enjoyable new year.
Harry Goldman
vw\| w\ \ n )
^ o-\
Q >\ vac* tv\/ ^
\ \ v\\vx»^ ^ Cv^.'C^T.
No. 817,076. PATENTED APB,. 17, 1906,
T. B, KINRAIDE.
ULTRA VIOLET LAMP,
APPLICATION FILED JDNE 12, 1205,
CfJjifyrrjc^s&s :
%'^Jhs>u C V( .^o^loV v
Ofr (2 \^tyitnjhss. * ■
&wlor:
ThomcvsJEi. f/irirat'c/c,
^ -
^Jdjblor'
UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE.
THOMAS B. KINRAIDE, OF JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS.
ULTRA-VIOLET LAMP.
No. 817,976.
Specification of Letters Patent. Patented April 17,1900.
Application fled June 12,1905. Serial No. 264,875.
To all whom it may concern:
Be it known that I, Thomas B. Kinkaide,
a citizen of the United States, residing at Ja¬
maica Plain, in the county of Suffolk and
5 State of Massachusetts, have invented an
Improvement .in Ultra-Violet Lamps, of
which the following description, in connec¬
tion with the accompanying drawings, is a
specification, like figures on the drawings rep-
io resenting like parts.
The object of my invention is to produce a
simple and inexpensive lamp for ultra-violet-
ray work capable of comparatively continu¬
ous use.
15 I have found that in use the quality of the
• light produced' by the usual ultra-violet
lamps (operated by a condenser-discharge),
.decreases as the lamps get heated, and the
ultra-violet rays quickly cease on overheat-
20 ing of the lamps, so that it is practically im¬
possible to maintain the ultra-violet ray con¬
tinuously for effective work for 'any compar¬
atively long period; yet it is desirable, if not
necessary,, in many instances that the pro-
25 duction of tliis ray shall be not only continu-
' ous, but substantially uniform and reliable.
Accordingly I have devised the hereinafter-
described mechanism for accomplishing the
desired object as above explained.
30 Referring to the drawings, in which I have
shown a preferred embodiment of mv inven¬
tion, Figure 1 represents the essentials there¬
of in side elevation, and Fig. 2 is a top plan
view thereof.
35 In carrying out my invention I have elimi¬
nated all needless appurtenances and have
secured my object by providing the required
electrodes (preferably iron) capable of auto¬
matically maintaining themselves within the
40 range of maximum heating, thereby produc¬
ing the continuous and uniform ultra-violet
condition desired.
Mounted on a suitable base 1 are opposite
standards 2 3, supporting the opposite elec.-'
45 trodes 4 5, the former in fixed position and
the latter in adjustable position. Each elec-'
trode is composed of a large number of thin
plates clamped compactly together adjacent
one end by suitable means, as by a bolt 6,
50 which in the adjustable electrode isshown as
simply provided with a tightening-nut 7 and in
the fixed electrode is showp as provided also
with a binding-nut ’8 for holding in place a
terminal wire 9. The central plates 10 are
55 composed of material suitable for producing
to the best advantage the desired results,
such as iron or steel, arid at the opposite sides
thereof, are similar thill plates 12 of like ma¬
terial or of copper, aluminium, or any heat-
dissipating substance, said plates converging 60
as close to the discharge-points of the elec¬
trodes as feasible without interfering with the
.proper working thereof and at their opposite
ends extending rearwardly from the arcing-
point to a considerable distance' and sepa- 65
rated from each other by fan-like formation,
as clearly shown at 13, thereby forming be¬
tween them a multitude of air-passages,
which formation under the heating influence
of the electric, current causes a rapid flow of 70
cooling-air, tending to absorb and remove the
heat radiated by the flaring rearwardly-ex-
tending plates 12..
I have found in practice that the foregoing
mechanism will rise simply to a given work- 75
ing temperature and that in an ordinary at¬
mosphere. it can.be run with maximum effi¬
ciency continuously without exceeding said
temperature. The tightly-compressed thin
plates readily transmit from one to another 80
the beat from the central discharge - elec¬
trodes 10 ‘and divide said heat union* the in¬
dividual plates 12, conveying it rapidly rear-
vardly and dissipating it uniformly into the
Surrounding air, thereby constantly drawing 85
i.way from the electrodes the heat, which
,vould otherwise quickly render them inoper-
itive for producing ultra-violet rays.
The adjustable electrode is supported on a
ielding spring-bar 14, fast in the upper end 90
_bindmg-nut
terminal 16. The
ot the post 3 and provided with a
15 for securing a. cireuit-termin... _—
spring 14 is under constant tendency to swing
its electrode rearwardly. Said electrode is
provided with a rigid arm 17, adjustable by 95
means of an eccentric 18 on a post 19, oper¬
ated by a handle 20, so that as the eccentric
is swung forward the electrode 5 is corre¬
spondingly adjusted toward the opposite
electrode 4, or as the eccentric is swung back top
the electrode 5 is correspondingly removed
J prefer the form of the electrode as shown
adjacent the diselvavge-area, as it conduces to
the best results, the massing of tlie metal at 105
this point not only taking care of the heat,,
but being especially efficient with reference
to the current.
My mechanism also affords convenient and
inexpensive means for renewing the elec- no
• trodes, as it becomes necessary merely to re¬
move the, thin plates or strip's 10 or part of
S17.B7P
them only, as they, become burned or cor¬
roded, and so likewise with any of the heat-
- dissipating plates of vanes 12.
' It will be understood that I am not limited
5 to the constructional details herein set forth
except as otherwise expressed in the claims,
inasmuch as my invention is capable of a
wide, variety of embodiments without depart¬
ing from the spirit and,scope thereof,
ro Having described my invention, what I
claim as new, and desire to secure by Letters
Patent, is— ■
1 . An ultra-violet lamp, comprising oppo¬
site electrodes, having central discharge-
ii. S points, and provided withrearwardly-extend-
ing separated heat-dissipating members for
! conducting the heat rearwardly from said
points and maintaining an even temperature
of the discharge-points in operation,
so 2. An ultra-violet lamp, comprising oppo¬
site electrodes, having central. discharger
points ajid heat-absorbing masses surround¬
ing said discliargcrpointa and provided with;
rear^rdly-extending, separated, heat-dissi-
25 patiiig.members.
■ o'. An ultra-violet lamp, comprising oppo¬
site electrodes, consisting of a mass or metal
at the discharge area.and separated at the
rear thereof into a multitude of diverging
30 plates for dissipating the heat from said mass.
4. In an ultra-violet lamp, an electrode 1
consisting mf a plurality of ■ metal plates
clamped together in mutual contact at the
discharge end thereof and spread apart from
each other at the opposite end of said elec- 35
trade. . ’■
5. In an ultra-violet lamp, an electrode
having a wedge-shaped discharge end and a
fan-shaped rear end, composed of a large
number of thin metal plates,- means clamping 40
said plates tightly together at the said dis¬
charge end, said plates being.bent apart from
each other to form intervening air-spaces at
said rear end.,
6. In an ultra-violet lamp, an electrode, 45
consisting of a plurality of thin plates clamped
tightly together at one-end and separated
from each other at the rear thereof, the inner
plates thereof consisting of conductors ef¬
fective for, producing ultra-violet rays and 50
extending forward to constitute discharge-'
points, and the remaining plates consisting
of conductors effective for radiating heat.
In testimony whereof I have signed my
name to this specification in the presence of 55
■ two subscribing witnesses.
THOMAS B. KINRAIDE.
Witnesses:
Geo. II. Maxwell,
M. A. Jones.
LIGHTNING
This lightning screen project is based on a
design created by Kenneth Strickfaden and
used by him in many Hollywood horror and
science fiction films [Figure 1]= Although it
represents a principle of physics centuries
old, anyone with a passion for lightning,
high voltage phenomena, and electrical
history will find this device to be an
impressive performer.
By Harry Goldman
Technically; it consists of a simple two-plate capacitor made
from metal discs with a disc of glass as the dielectric. Think of it
as a flattened Leyden jarT The challenging part is not so much
electrical as it is in assembling and mounting the components
[Figure 2 ],
The large metal disc [MDL], glass disc [GD], and copper
discharge ring [CDR] are identical in overall diameter. The smaller
metal disc [MDS] is not critical but generally one-third the
diameter of the large metal disc. The copper discharge ring is
formed from one-quarter inch [ID] or larger tubing. Several short
lengths of metallic conducting tape [MCT] — strategically placed
at equidistant points — create an electrical connection between
the large metal disc and the copper discharge ring.
The power source required is dependent upon the overall
dimensions of your project. Large systems demand voltages of
30 kV or up. Smaller projects can function at one-half those
potentials. This project is powered by an oil-immersed 65 kV
x-ray transformer [Figure 3]. However, it will fill the screen with
discharges while running at only 50-55% of its rating [Figure 4],
The final dimensions of your project will be determined by
ambition, imagination, craftsmanship skills, and experience
with high voltage electricity. Strickfaden's lightning screens —
constructed from discarded and cobbled-up parts — measured
approximately 44" across. The screen for this project is a modest
16" [OD] for the large discs with a smaller disc of 8" [Figure 5].
Now that I have a feel for what my screen can do, I plan to
replace the central disc with one having a 5-6" cross-section.
This change will result in an increase in the sparking distances
and with (no doubt) an accompanying rise in the crackling
noise levels.
In assembling the material for this project, I followed
38 WUTSiVOLTS August 2009
B FIGURE 1. Kenneth Strickfaden, special
electrical effects wizard of Hollywood's
golden age, is shown operating the
lightning screen used in numerous mad
scientist movies.
| CDR]
[GO] [MOL]
_/YTTYW_
& FIGURE 2.
The various
components and
circuit required for
the construction
and operation of
the lightning
screen project.
[jr]
GLOSSARY
MT-METAL TUBE
MDS-METAL OISC, SMALL
CDR-COPPER DISCHARGE RING
GD -GLASS DISC
MDL-METAL DISC, LARGE
MCT-METAL CONDUCTING TAPE
HVT-HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
IR-INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
VVT-VARIABLE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
Strickfaden's practice of searching out ready-made items
that might be applied to its construction. The supporting
framework used here appears to have previously served as
a Lazy Susan food tray. The entire assembly is mounted on
a mobile cabinet originally designed for audio equipment.
Both the Lazy Susan and equipment cabinet were garage
sale purchases. Any craftsman skilled in woodworking
will have the tools and expertise to design and fashion
their own supporting structures. Plus, we've seen what
marvelous structures can be fashioned from PVC pipe.
The metal rod or tube [MT] extending from the small
central disc can either be soldered, welded, or bolted in
place I chose the latter by pressing a threaded shaft
coupler into one end of the tube and secured it to the
disc with a flathead bolt. It was necessary to form a small
depression around the disc's center hole so the head of
the bolt would be in the same plane with its bottom
surface. The small central disc is attached to the glass with
double-sided tape. It must be mounted at the exact center
of the glass disc. An electrical connection was made using
a toggle bolt. Once forced into the tube, the toggle stays
fixed by friction. It can be easily removed. The entire
screen assembly is held in place with simple retainers of
non-conducting materials such as plastic, bakelite, wood,
etc. [Figure 6].
I found that discharges emanating from the flat center
disc show a tendency for hugging to the surface of the
glass. This can create enough heat to eventually crack the
glass. By substituting a sturdy metal pie, pizza, or dinner
plate, the chance of overheating the glass is greatly
reduced. The raised "wings" of the plate position the edge
or discharge surfaces above the glass.
Heat resistant (tempered) glass is a better choice o
material when it comes to lightning screens. Round
tempered glass intended for protecting table surfaces can
be obtained from your local big box store (Target, etc.).
However, you will have to use it in the size at which it
comes as tempered glass cannot be cut down to size.
If you are thinking of ordering a custom-sized tempered
glass product from a local glass firm, brace yourself when
the clerk quotes the price. I used 3/16" common glass for
the dielectric. Avoid plain windowpane glass.
Discharges between the center disc and the copper
ring are not only impressive but also very loud (ear
protectors recommended). By again taking a tip from
Strickfaden, the effect is further enhanced when coating
the large metal disc with a special luminous paint or
paper. The sparks will temporarily leave their signature on
the luminous material. A self-stick luminous plastic product
can be obtained from Extreme Glow, P.O. Box 3037,
Tupelo, MS 38803. The USA phone is 1-888-748-4755.
Luminous paints are available from any craft or depart¬
ment store. I did not try paints so I am unable to tell you
just how well they work in this situation.
The best way to demonstrate the full effect of the
discharges is to operate the screen in total or near-total
darkness. Short runs not only create the best after-glow
H FIGURE 3.The 65 kV (oil immersed) x-ray transformer used
to power the lightning screen. An inductive reactance is
hooked in series to limit the current draw.
effect but reduce the chance of overheating the glass.
Long exposures tend to blur the individual lightning trails
on the glow product. Interestingly, there is a simple sketch
of a lightning screen on page 180 of Kenneth Strickfaden ,
Dr. Frankenstein's Electrician (McFarland, 2005) suggesting
the use of a mirror as the dielectric.
To prevent electrical currents from running wild and
tripping circuit breakers, an inductive reactance [IR] or
choke must be inserted in series with the 120 volt input
line of the high voltage transformer [HVT], I applied a
multi-tapped, iron-cored inductor from an old medical
machine [Figure 7]. The tap measuring 20 mH provided
the best results. A simple reactance can be made by
packing a one-inch by seven-inch plastic or phenolic tube
with soft iron (coat hanger) wire cut to 6" lengths an
winding it with no less than two layers of #14 or #16
copper conductor. Give each layer a wrapping of tape
before continuing winding. Tapping the ends and
center turn of the second layer will provide a choice of
reactances [Figure 8]. In place of the core of wires, ferrite
FIGURE 4.The lightning screen's discharges are not only
impressive but very loud.
Anaust 2009 NUTS!VOLTS 39
0 FIGURE 5. The completed lightning
screen project.
rings can provide the electrical tinker with a superior
inductor core product.
A simpler and less time-consuming method is to
connect a 150 watt (or larger) incandescent bulb in series
with the transformer input line. Another approach is to
insert an electrical heating device (hot plate, toaster, etc.)
or similar resistance in the circuit to act as a ballast. My
project pulls between 5-7 amperes. No current control is
required when screens are powered by current limiting
ignition or neon sign transformers.
A piece of equipment not essential to the
construction of a lightning
screen — but which is highly
recommended for its
operation — is a variable
voltage transformer [VVT]
such as a variac, powerstat,
etc. The VVT allows full
control over operation of
the screen and can assist in
determining the correct
amount of ballast. Too much
ballast draws a near-zero
current and produces very
little sparking. A weak
ballast will fill the screen
with crackling discharges
but at the expense of
pulling an excessive current.
The VVT allows the
operator to find an
acceptable balance. Lacking
such a control requires
energizing the circuit at
full voltage. Although this
procedure can create
startling results, it is a
practice I choose to avoid.
Variable transformers
featuring both a voltmeter and ammeter are preferred over
the single or non-metered models. Unfortunately,
purchasing a dual meter VVT can be an expensive
proposition. Even a used double-meter model — if one
can be found — brings in big money. I surmounted the
problem by purchasing a 7.5 ampere meterless VVT at a
hamfest for less than $10. I mounted it within an old metal
cabinet and added two inexpensive meters along with an
inlet, outlet, switch, fuse, and pilot light, for a cost of less
than $50. eBay is another good source for finding used
variable transformers.
a FIGURE 6. A close-up showing
comparative sizes of the 16" and 8"
discs. Also shown are plastic retaining
clips to hold the disc in place.The
luminous glow paper behind the glass
disc provides the coloration.
0 FIGURE 7. An inductive reactance was placed in series
with the 120 volt line to control current draw.This unit
was once a component part of an old medical machine.
40 NUTSIVOLTS August 2009
® FIGURE 8. An inductive reactance can be easily
constructed using readily-avaifable materials.
Finally, the lightning screen should not be confused
with the safe, silent, plasma-like luminous discs which
have become popular sales items at variety stores. On the
contrary, the project described herein involves electrical
potentials which are unforgiving to those who become
careless in its operation. The good news is that the
lightning screen is an alternating current capacitor with
little — if any — residual charge remaining on the plates
once it is shut down. Even so, experimenters must
disconnect it from the power line when it becomes
necessary to make adjustments or when not in use.
A remarkable person once declared, "No man is an
island unto himself." That statement is certainly true in this
endeavor and I gladly acknowledge the valuable input and
assistance received from Steve Cole, Mitch Tilbury, and
Suzanne Gaeta. !UV
Footnotes
1) An early form of capacitor invented in 1 745 in Leyden
[Leiden], The Netherlands.
Harry Goldman can be contacted by
sending correspondence to
3 Amy Lane, Queensbury, NY 12804.
B ecause of the nature of this
project and the spirit in which
it is intended, there is no formal
parts list. This project can be
made from used/collectable parts
wherever they may be available,
so it is up to the reader to gather
the necessary components. Here's
a basic list of some of the items I
used in my build. The only item I
purchased new was the glass disc.
PARTS
LIST
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(Prototype thru Production)
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86(571 )86795686 sales@pcbcore.com
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• 3/16" x 16" diameter
glass disc
• 65 kV x-ray transformer
• Inductive reactance, 20 mH
• Large metal disc 16" diameter
• Small metal serving dish 8" D
• Metal tube 4 3/4" x 8"
• 1/4" ID copper tubing
• High voltage wire
• Electrical tape
• Cabinet
• Etc., etc., etc.
The Robosapien is pretty nifty. But we're not here to
sell the Robosapien. No, we're here to sell his guts. r
A shady [techno-organ,dealer, if you will.
Well, there's nothing shady about what we do. We have been
serving the robotics community for fifteen years with
excellent service and quality parts. Parts like gear j$ss. r
motors designed for the Robosapien that are
inexpensive, durable, and robust. Check online for
a wide range of mating accessories too!
GM2 ,
224:1‘
GM3
224:1
1-866-276-2687
www.solarbotics.com
m ctii a
August 2009 NUTS1V0LTS 41
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A FRACTIONAL A.C. INDUCTION MOTOR
MINUS THE ROTOR ASSEMBLY.
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w. w n
2809 NE 15th Street
Pompano Beach, FL 33062
12 November 2003
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
Dear Mr. Terbo,
It was indeed a great honour to meet you at the Tesla Energy and Electrotherapy Conference An
even greater honour was to find that you would take even a small interest in my work - in '
retrospect, for me this alone measures the entire success of my contributions to the event.
My research into the patents and ideas of Nikola Tesla began nearly a decade ago upon mv first
acquisition of an early Eleclrolherapeutic Tesla Coil. That point faged the "fwhZ
now called The Turn Of The Century Electrotherapy Museum”.
SimultaneousJy to acquiring the pieces of this collection, I began extensively (and exclusively) to
make reproductions of the various apparatus which I had acquired. These reproductions proved
two-fold: First, to obtain rare first-hand experience of the manufacturing technologies which
were available in Tesla’s lifetime, and second to experience first-hand the effects and knowledge
of operating such obscure apparatus. These efforts (which I have spent thousands of hours oftfn
hff Tcan s aC >r P r? haVe P roven the mselves to be some of the fondest memories of my
T>1’ i t with confidence that the vibrancy and often unbelievable imagery spoken in
Tesla s lectures are in reality not only as spectacular as his words, but provides onewith such an
incredible sense of awe that only by experiencing these phenomenon in person can one begin to
truly understand the man and his efforts. g
I hope that from this point on I can share some of these experiences with you, and that through
k T Y< !h W ' L P T? aPS §a T S ° me fUrther insight into the ex P eri ences of your Grand Uncle This
thrn h m" 8 h certain y as P lr e to continue, for what can be more exciting than to try and see
through the eyes of a man who changed the face of the entire planet? Y
Enclosed are a few examples that I hope you will find useful. The CD-ROMs contain the real
h Inf ° r T° n ’u Ut 1 ha \ e ,nc,uded some other ^ms of interest that are more easily handled
in ihe wels to fotw t5 ° n ^ which 1 ho P e to com P d * y ou
Respectfully yours.
iehary, c/o
The Turn Of The Centuiy Electrotherapy Museum
Enclosures
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
November 19, 2003
Mr. Jeffrey Behary
The Turn Of The Century Electrotherapy Museum
2809 NE 15 th Street
Pompano Beach, FL 33062
Dear Mr. Behary:
Before I thank you for the fascinating collection of material from and about your museum
that arrived this past Saturday, the 15 th , I want to pay special attention to your cover letter
that accompanied the package.
I’ve received many messages of appreciation for my efforts in bringing the personality
and accomplishments of Nikola Tesla to a wider audience. But it is rare that I receive a
letter such as yours that describes the connection that joins you to Nikola Tesla with such
sincerity and heartfelt warmth. It makes my efforts worthwhile. Thank you.
It will take me some time to digest all the material you sent. My interest in your work is
sincere. Your approach to this area of Tesla-type medical applications is different in that
you concentrate on the equipment rather than the claimed efficacy of treatment. It is
what drew me to your presentation. Previously, the rampant quackery of medical
practitioners of Tesla’s time obscured the several areas of true benefit. This put me off
and left a gap in my knowledge in an area that I may now develop, thanks to your gifts.
Whenever I use any of your material, I will credit the source.
I’m enclosing a number of Tesla and Society items I hope you will find interesting and
useful for your museum. I look forward to a continuing exchange of ideas. Please feel
free to contact me at any time. Thanks again.
WHT/tmsri
enclosures
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website, teslamemorialsociety.org
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC,
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
April 2005
The Society has an extraordinary and beneficial relationship with The Turn Of The
Century Electrotherapy Museum and its founder, Mr. Jeff Behary. The fruits of this
relationship are the exchange of archival material from each organization as well as the
sharing of new research and the publicizing of new work. I take this opportunity to
distribute some of the archival material Mr. Behary (Jeff) has provided to the Society for
Members and others who are fascinated by the technological vision of Nikola Tesla.
The current item for distribution is the article by Thomas Commerford Martin TESLA’S
OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS, An Authoritative Account Of Some Of His
Recent Electrical Work as published in the April 1895 issue of The Century Magazine
(Vol. XLIX, No. 6, pages 916-933). The article is nearly 9,000 words in length and
includes 14 excellent, historic photographs and one early Tesla oscillator diagram.
Immediately following Martin’s article is a short poem IN TESLA’S LABORATORY by
Robert Underwood Johnson.
Jeff has provided the Society with a very high quality color copy of the article directly
from his own original copy of the Century Magazine issue. The copy being distributed is
a high quality Xerox directly from the original. The advantages of this reproduction over
other published works are the exceptional clarity of the photos and the sense of handling
the original document in its published form. (I have chosen to distribute the document
printed on both sides of each page as is the original and for postage economy.)
The Turn Of The Century Electrotherapy Museum (2809 NE 15 th Street, Pompano
Beach, Florida 33062) collection includes a great number of original electrotherapy
machines, components and equipment and reproductions built by Jeff to Tesla
specifications and to manufacturing technologies available a hundred years ago. Jeff s
approach to Tesla-type medical applications is his concentration on the equipment rather
than the claimed efficacy of treatment. Previously, the rampant quackery of medical
practitioners of Tesla’s time obscured the several areas of true benefit.
I invite everyone to access the Electrotherapy Museum’s online 1,000 Megabyte site of
over 30,000 files ( www.elec t rotherapymuseum.com ). Jeff also offers an offline Museum
of seven or more CD-ROMs.
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary TMSuz
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
TSR
From William Terbo
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21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076-3136
From William Terbo
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
NIKOLA TESLA MEMORIAL MONUMENT
DEDICATION AND UNVEILING, SUNDAY, JULY 9, 2006
QUEEN VICTORIA PARK, NIAGARA FALLS, ONTARIO
A dedication and unveiling ceremony was held on July 9 th for the beautiful new bronze
statue of Nikola Tesla. The statue is located in Queen Victoria Park directly overlooking
Niagara Falls from the Canadian side. I was pleased to participate, as the closest living
relative, to represent the Tesla family in the ceremony. I’ve enclosed some representative
photos of the statue and its spectacular site plus other items to provide event details.
Radio Television Serbia provided a large production contingent for a 45-munite live
satellite TV feed to Belgrade for prime-time broadcast as a part of their extensive Tesla
150 th Anniversary Celebration. The German documentary maker, Maxim Films of
Berlin, also covered the event as well as area media.
The event opened with a large chorus singing the Canadian and Serbian anthems
followed by a program starting with short congratulatory remarks by representatives of
the Canadian National and Provincial governments, the Serbian government, the Niagara
Parks Commission and the Mayor of Niagara Falls. The statue was then unveiled with a
traditional hymn by the chorus. The Chairman of the Tesla Memorial Statue Committee
offered a few remarks and the program concluded with my short remarks linking the
blood of Tesla with the statue.
The entire program is available on website www. teslaevent. com . I spoke for about three
minutes extemporaneously and with feeling. I’ll put remarks to paper when I receive my
copy of the ceremony.
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary
TMSzw
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is anon-political, non-profit, allvolunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
i
vjisj w-ei lv<o S
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J
, i;v ; Mike DiBaKista, The Review
Artist Les Drysdale, of Hamilton, looks on as the monument.he created of Nikola Tesla is ready to .be lifted into place across from the
Horseshoe Falls. The memorial to Tesla, will be officially unveiled at noon Sunday. .
Ihh IC»sVIGUj Jul-, 8, ZaoC,
Tifu-f , AvtMUd, 0»wM)iv
Bronze statue
erected near falls
BY COREY LAROCQUE
Review Staff Writer
NIAGARA FALLS - When
Nikola Tesla was a young boy
in Serbia, he envisioned draw¬
ing power from Niagara Falls.
Now, the inventor of alternat¬
ing current has a permanent
tribute overlooking"the Horse¬
shoe Falls.
Members of St. George's Ser¬
bian Orthodox church have
donated a bronze statue of
Tesla, who has national hero
status in his homeland. They
wanted to create a lasting trib¬
ute on the 150th anniversary
of Tesla's July 10 birth.
"He's someone the Serbian
community feels has been, if
not neglected, certainly over¬
looked throughout history,"
said Dushan Kolundzic, the
-president of St. George's church.
As a boy, Tesla saw a picture
of the Horseshoe Falls in. a
travel book and told Ms uncle
he wanted to put a wheel
under the falls to harness the
power of the moving water.
The new statue stands at the
same point, where that photo¬
graph was taken.
"Having him here at the
Falls is extremely important,
because it captures the com¬
plete circle," Kolundzic said.
The 2,000-pound statue
shows Tesla in a long over¬
coat, carrying a top hat in his
left hand. In his right hand,
he's carrying a cane, depicting
the moment he conceived of
alternating current by drawing
diagrams on the ground,
lie's standing atop an AC
motor, one of the 700 inven¬
tions he patented. The motor
is similar to the* "Teslatron"
statue in the Fallsview
Casino's entrance, which also
pays homage to the inventor.
Alternating current is the ’
type of electricity used
throughout the world because
it can be transmitted over
long distances.
The Tesla monument will cost
about $165,000, but the total
price tag could be $220,000 by
the time the bills for a concrete
foundation and landscaping
come in, Kolundzic said.
It will be unveiled during a
ceremony Sunday at noon,
followed by a Serbian cultural
program at 2 p.m. in Oakes
Garden Theatre.
An international design
competition led to more than
20 submissions, but the judg¬
ing committee liked one that
came from Hamilton artist Les
Brysdale.
See STATUE on Page A2
STATUE:
Another
erected in
Belgrade
Continued from Page A1
"The honour of being chosen to
alter the landscape .of the Niagara ,
Parks is incredible. Who gets to do
that?" said Drysdale.,
Drysdale wore a T-shirt with ;
Tesla's picture as "the man who
powered the world," as he super¬
vised the placement of the statue Fri¬
day morning.
The Niagara Parks Commission
doesn't have many statues in Queen
Victoria Park, but Tesla is a fitting,
addition, said Debbie Whitehouse, /
the executive director of parks. ■;
"The history of Niagara Parks and !
hydro-electricity are entwined /
together. You see that everywhere !
you go in the Niagara Parks," she
said.
Drysdale's statue captures Tesla's
spirit, said Bill Auchterlonie, who
led the church's statue committee.
The inventor often appeared in
photographs looking "serious, as if
he was day-dreaming, look in his
eye," Auchterlonie said.
"He's got Tesla. You feel like your
looking at Tesla.... He may be stand¬
ing on this generator. His mind is a
million miles away/' Auchterlonie said.
Celebrating Tesla's accomplish¬
ment is a big deal not just for Ser-
bian-Canadi.ans, but. back in his .
native land as well. A news crew.. .
from Serbia's national broadcaster ‘
was in Niagara Falls filming the
statue's installation and its unveil¬
ing. Belgrade's airport is being :
renamed in Tesla's honour and the
statue that finished second place in
St. George's competition is being,
erected at the airport. i
clarocque@nfreview.com
PHOTOS TAKEN AT THE DEDICATION OF THE TESLA BUST
ST. SAVA CATHEDRAL, JANUARY 28, 2007
The bust of Nikola Tesla is in the background of the photos (in the Cathedral forecourt,
behind the fence.)
See Dedication Report (TMSam2) for further identification details.
Identification of persons from left to right.
Photo #1:
Mirjana Sovilj, William Terbo, Maria Wera Cedrell, Svetlana Djokovic
Photo #2:
Marina Zivic (sculptor), William Terbo, Mirjana Sovilj, Svetlana Djokovic, Maria Wera
Cedrell
Photo #3:
William Terbo
TMSas2
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Statement by William Terbo at Dedication of Bust of Nikola Tesla, January 28, 2007
To:
Princess Elizabeth Karageorgevic
Ms. Mirjana Sovilj, PhD
Ms. Maria Wera Cedrell, Esq.
Ms. Svetlana Djokovic
Dear Donors:
Speaking for the family of Nikola Tesla and for the Society that honors his name, I wish
to commemorate the dedication of your gift of the bust of Nikola Tesla to St. Sava
Cathedral. I am gratified that you have thought to honor the man for whom I have
labored for the past thirty-odd years to restore his name to his proper place in world
technological and social history. Your generosity is very much appreciated.
I also wish to reflect on the artistic skill that sculptress Marina Zivic has exhibited in
transforming her genuine respect and love for Nikola Tesla into her creation of this work
of art.
I want to thank Cathedral Dean Very Reverend Father Djokan Majstorovic for his
dignified dedication program. And to thank the Cathedral congregation for their support
that brought event into being.
Your bust of Nikola Tesla is now established in a proper and publicly accessible place in
the City where he lived and worked.
You may take great satisfaction in providing an excellent example of an American of
Serbian ethnicity who demonstrated world leadership in the current context of world
difficulties for Serbs.
My most sincere congratulations to you all.
TMSav
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest'U.S. based international organization in continuous
nne ration honorine and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation oj mitoia les
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization foui
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
BUST OF NIKOLA TESLA DEDICATED AT ST. SAVA CATHEDRAL
A bronze bust of Nikola Tesla was dedicated in the forecourt of Manhattan’s St. Sava
Serbian Orthodox Cathedral, 13-15 West 25 th Street, on Sunday, January 28, 2007. The
bust was donated by an international group of four individuals with Serbian ethnic ties
and an appreciation for the personality and accomplishments of the great American
inventor of Serbian ethnicity, Nikola Tesla, Father of Alternating Current and foremost
contributor to the technology of modern radio.
The bust is mounted on a five-foot black marble pedestal. The image depicts i esia in his
late 50’s, hair parted in the center and looking slightly to his left showing both face and
profile. His shoulders are visible revealing the cut of his dinner jacket, wing-tip collar
and full tie, the formal manner of dress for which he was so famous. Sculptor, Ms.
Marina Zivic of Belgrade, created the bust in her studio and had it cast in Serbia
The 150 th Anniversary of the birth of Nikola Tesla, 2006, has been celebrated throughout
the world with special emphasis in Serbia where 150 events were organized to
commemorate his Serbian ethnicity. Delivery of this bust is a part of that yearlong
recognition of the great scientist. Nikola Tesla lived the greatest part of his life in
Manhattan and created the bulk of his legacy in Manhattan. The bust represents the first
image of Tesla in Manhattan that can be viewed from a place accessible to the general
public.
January 27 is a particularly important date on the Serbian Orthodox calendar. St. Sava is
the leading Serbian Orthodox Saint and the name-patron of the Cathedral. The Services
of the 28 th specifically honored St. Sava. The Tesla bust dedication ceremony was
conducted immediately following the Cathedral services.
Cathedral Dean, the Very Reverend Father Djokan Majstorovic, opened the ceremony
performing the blessing of the bust. Short remarks were made by donators Ms. Mirjana
Sovilj, PhD, Director of The Institute for Experimental Phonetics and Speech Pathology,
Belgrade; Ms. Maria Wera Cedrell, Attorney and Producer for World Television
Network, Stockholm; and, Ms. Svetlana Djokovic, General Manager of Academy of Arts
“BK”, Belgrade. (Princess Elizabeth Karageorgevic, President, Princess Elizabeth
Foundation, New York, was traveling and unable to attend.) Bust sculptor, Ms. Marina
Zivic, was introduced and the ceremony concluded with remarks by Church President,
Mr. Nenad Milinkovic. Among those attending the ceremony was Mr. William H. Terbo,
closest living relative of Nikola Tesla.
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, allvolunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) was born in the Military Frontier Province of Austria to a
Serbian Orthodox priest. Rev. Milutin Tesla, and his wife, Djuka. His birthplace later
became part of Yugoslavia and is now in the Republic of Croatia. Technically educated
and showing great promise in his early professional career, Tesla came to America in
1884 where he soon filed the basic patents that describe the entire system of AC power
generation, transmission and utilization. The AC electrification of Niagara Falls in 1896
(with George Westinghouse) is one of his most notable accomplishments. By 1900
Nikola Tesla was one of the world’s most famous personalities. He was granted over 200
U.S. patents (and more than 200 foreign patents) that covered the basics of radio,
robotics, high-frequency electronics and basic contributions to computer technology.
St. Sava Cathedral, a Manhattan institution, has had a continuous relationship with
Nikola Tesla and recognizes his date of birth each July. The Cathedral was built in 1855
as the Chapel of the famous Trinity Episcopal Church in lower Manhattan. It was deeded
to the Serbian Orthodox congregation in early 1943. Tesla passed on January 7 th , 1943,
ironically, Christma s on the Christian Orthodox calenda r , and is r eg i stered as the fi f th -
entry on the St. Sava Cathedral Record of Deaths.
Tesla was accorded a State Funeral at Manhattan’s Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the
Devine on January 12 th . St. John the Devine at West 112 th Street, the largest Gothic
cathedral in the world, accommodated the more than 2,000 who attended. The funeral
service opened with Episcopal Bishop William T. Manning and concluded with St. Sava
Cathedral priest, Prota Dusan J. Sukletovic (Very Reverend Dushan J. Shukletovich.)
The 50 th Anniversary of Nikola Tesla’s passing was held at St. Sava Cathedral on January
16, 1993. The Church ceremony included the full Orthodox Requiem with eulogies by
four area Serbian Orthodox priests. The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. sponsored the
Church ceremony and following reception with donations defraying all expenses.
A matching black marble pedestal (also designed by congregation member, Mr. Branko
Zee) has been erected in the Cathedral forecourt a few feet from the Tesla pedestal. The
bust of Michael Pupin (1854-1935) is to be placed there to honor the second great
American scientist of Serbian ethnicity. Pupin was the inventor of the Telephone
Induction Coil that enabled long distance telephony and the founder of the Columbia
University School of Electrical Engineering. The Pupin bust is currently located in a
niche in the side of the Cathedral facing the church rectory. The considerable extra cost
of the construction and dedication of the two bust presentations is to be met through an
appeal for private contributions.
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary TMSam2
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is anon-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
As he admired the Budapest sunset, TESLA ENVISIONED
the solution to his motor problem.
l§iSllll
TWO-PHASE alternating-current [AC] induction motorwas built by
Tesla in 188?. By energizing pairs of induction coils on either side
of the statorwith two separate out-of-phase alternating currents,
he created a rotating magnetic field that induced an opposing
electric field in the rotor, causing it to turn.
val ship. Here, more than a century ago, was a proto¬
type for the guided missile.
Despite this spectacular demonstration, Tesla never
converted his remote-control boat into a full-fledged
weapon. His failure to do so is emblematic of a larger
theme that permeated his life—a profound idealism that
only occasionally reached practical reality. Throughout
Qverview/Mkfl/aJfesffl.
H Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) was a Serbian-American inventor
and researcher who discovered the rotating magnetic field,
the basis of most alternating-current (AC) machinery—
dynamos, transformers and motors. He also invented the
Tesla coil, a high-voltage induction coil used widely in radios,
televisions and other electronic equipment,
a Tesla was a great showman and a favorite of newspaper
reporters who sought sensational copy. His outrageous
claims that he communicated with other planets and had
developed a death ray led to considerable criticism, however.
« Despite devising many important fundamental technical
concepts, Tesla rarely bothered to engineer them into usable
products. Sadly, he was impractical about financial matters
and ended up dying in poverty and obscurity.
80 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
his career, Tesla strove to find the perfect principle on
which to base a revolutionary invention. Having identi¬
fied a grand concept, he was willing to patent and dem¬
onstrate it, but he often left it to others to carry out the
down-and-dirty work of engineering a moneymaking
product. Sadly, as his career progressed, the famous in¬
ventor found it increasingly difficult to convince prospec¬
tive backers to help with the messy process of commer¬
cialization. As a result, he grew ever more disappointed
with and disconnected from the world.
Motor Visionary
TESLA was born on July 10,1856, to a Serbian fam¬
ily living on the frontier of the Austro-Hungarian Em¬
pire, in what is today Croatia. As a teenager, Tesla chose
to study engineering at the Joanneum Polytechnic School
in Graz, Austria. There the youthful scholar eagerly at¬
tended the physics lectures presented by Jacob Poeschl in
1876 and 1877.
During Poeschl’s lectures, Tesla first started thinking
about what would become his most important invention,
an improved AC motor. One day he watched his profes¬
sor attempt to control the troublesome sparking of a di¬
rect-current (DC) motor’s brush commutator—copper-
wire electrical contacts that reverse the current twice
during each rotation so that the resulting opposing mag¬
netic fields keep the rotor turning. Tesla suggested that it
might be possible to design a motor without a commuta¬
tor. Annoyed by the student’s impudence, Poeschl lec¬
tured on the impossibility of creating such a motor, con¬
cluding: “Mr. Tesla may accomplish great things, but he
certainly never will do this.” The rebuke, however, mere¬
ly stoked the fires of the youth’s ambition. Tesla puzzled
incessantly about how to make a spark-free motor as he
pursued his studies in Graz and then in Prague.
In 1881 Tesla traveled to Budapest, hoping to work for
family friends, Tivadar and Ferenc Puskas. An ambitious
promoter, Tivadar had previously convinced Thomas A.
Edison to give him the commercial rights to introduce in¬
ventions developed by the Wizard of Menlo Park in conti¬
nental Europe. The Puskas brothers were planning to con¬
struct a telephone exchange in Budapest using Edison’s
improved telephone design. Unfortunately, they were un¬
able to hire anyone immediately. While waiting, Tesla fell
seriously ill. He only recovered with the help of a college
friend, Anthony Szigeti, who encouraged the sick man to
walk each evening to help regain his strength.
It was during one of these strolls with Szigeti that
Tesla had an epiphany about motors. As they admired
the sunset, Tesla suddenly envisioned using a rotating
MARCH 8005
SCIENCE MUSEUM SCIENCE AMD SOCIETY PICTURE LIBRARY
From
William Terbo
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
MICHAEL IDVORSKY PUPIN - 150™ ANNIVERSARY OF HIS BIRTH
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc., its Executive Board and members join with all people
who value the scientific and technological advances that have created the modem society
in which we live in honoring the birth of Michael Pupin.
Michael Pupin, inventor, humanitarian and philosopher, is best known in the scientific
community as the inventor of the Telephone Induction Coil (1899) a device that in one
single step made long distance telephony possible. Sold in 1901 to the Bell System for
an unprecedented sum that gave him the opportunity expand his vision beyond the field
of his choosing. Also among Dr. Pupin’s 34 U.S. patents were important radio
developments and seminal work in Short Exposure X-Ray technology (1900) that led to
the safe use of the new x-ray technology in medical diagnostics.
Michael Pupin was born on October 4, 1854 in the small village of Idvor in what is now a
part of Serbia. He came to America at the age of 16 with only five cents in his pocket but
with boundless energy. Within five years he had prepared himself for entry into
Columbia College (University), graduated with honors, continued at Cambridge in
England and received his Doctorate in Physics in Germany. He returned to a teaching
position at Columbia where he soon founded the School of Electrical Engineering. Dr.
Pupin remained associated with Columbia for the rest of his life. Shortly after his death
on March 12, 1935 Columbia renamed the Physics building Pupin Physics Laboratories.
Dr. Pupin’s Peace Conference advice to President Wilson was instrumental in resolving
the borders that would define the new country that was to become Yugoslavia. Dr. Pupin
served as the President of several important professional institutions including the New
York Academy of Sciences, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Radio
Institute of America. Among his many honors was the Edison Medal (1920). Michael
Pupin wrote three well-received books including the best selling autobiography of his
fascinating life From Immigrant To Inventor , awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1924.
On a personal note I wish to privately honor Michael Pupin on this significant year. Dr.
Pupin was a personal friend and mentor of my father Nikola J. Trbojevich (Terbo) from
the very time of father’s arrival in America. It has been my privilege to honor Dr. Pupin
several times in the past. I’ve attached a brief summary of that special connection.
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary TMSsw2
(732) 396-8852
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamem.orialsoci.ety.org
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
25 June 2004
Mme Marija Sesic, Director
Nikola Tesla Museum
Krunska 51
11000 Belgrade
Serbia and Montenegro
Dear Mme Sesic:
Mr. Mrkich informs me that you have resumed your duties as Director and that your
health has improved somewhat. 1 pray for continued improvement for your personal
well-being and so that you can return to 100% efficiency.
My travel plans for Serbia are confirmed. I will arrive on September 12 and return on
October 2. I plan to spend at least several days in Belgrade within that period. I will
contact you beforehand to set up convenient time(s) for Museum visits. I have a Tesla
correspondence research project that you will find interesting and with which you or your
staff will be able to help.
I have access to a “lost” archive of personal correspondence from Tesla to Edward Dean
Adams, the Managing Director of the Niagara Falls project. The earliest letter is dated
January 7, 1893 and is written by hand on stationary of the Gerlach Hotel. It addresses
the earliest attempts at commenting on the Niagara project specification. Later letters are
dated February 2, February 6, March 12, March 21, March 22, March 26, May 11, July
27 and September 6, 1893. It appears that during this period the choice of the system for
Niagara was still up in the air. There are later letters, as well, which indicate a relatively
close working and personal relationship between the two.
What I will need to complete an analysis of this interesting phase in a project that
changed the world is: (1) Xerox copies of letters, notes or messages from Adams to Tesla
during this period; (2) Tesla’s drafts of the letters actually sent to Adams; and (3) any
type of correspondence between Tesla and Westinghouse during this period (to see if
Tesla was acting completely alone or in concert with Westinghouse and/or Westinghouse
engineers). 1 trust that you and your staff can accommodate. Of course, anything I create
will be properly credited and available to the Museum.
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslainemorialsociety.org
On a personal note and as a special favor, I would like neat Xerox copies of all the
correspondence from my father to Tesla. Unlike Tesla, my father did not keep his drafts.
I look forward to our September meetings. Best regards to you and yours.
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary
WHT/tmsss
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslarnem.orialsociety.org
JIN. 16.2004 8:40AM 3FAIT URE fjo. 8338 P, i
Czech radio became pan of Tesla Planetary Gathering -11-07-2003 - Radio Prague Page j. of 3
Radio Prague - the international service of Czech Radio
'■'V.
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16-6-20O4,12:16 UTC
Czech radio became part of Tesla Planetary
Gathering
ft 1-07-2003] By Mim$ Salic _
Liston 9 iskb/s-32kb/s
Ttte Cx€*ch /<
iRepublic
In .Europe
On Thursday Czech Radio became part of the International
multimedia project Tesla Planetary Gathering. The project was
initiated by Serbian Radio Belgrade, and it aims to create a
network of radio stations oannacting the towns where Nikofe
Tesla lived and worked, A newly-installed bust of Tesla,
unveiled yesterday in the Czech Radio building, is a memorial
to the scientist who established the basic concept of radio
technology, a genius who spent a significant part of his
scientific and intellectual life at the Technical University in
Prague. Mima Solic reports:
A newly-installed bust of
Tesla
Nikola Tesla was bom in 185S into a family of Serb peasants in
one of the poorest regions In Croatia, which was then part of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. Before leaving for Amarica to begin
the period of his great research, Tesla was heavily involved in
the intellectual life of Central Europe. The inventor of radio
technology, rotating magnetic fields and polyphase AC currents
studied at the Technical University in Prague, which was at that
time one of the best technical schools in Europe, He was
ingenious but his work wouldn’t be possible without the
knowledge of philosophy and physics he gained in Central
Europe, says Drenks Dobrosavljevic from Radio Novi Sad:
"At that time Ernst Mach, one of the greatest European
philosophers and physicist, was teaching in Prague. At that time
there were also professors in Graz and Prague who had a deep
knowledge leading to the invention of telegraphy. That points to
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16/06/04
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
10 October 2004
Photos from our trip to Serbia from September 12 through October 2, 2004
Boyana and I wish to thank the many friends and colleagues, old and new, we visited on
our most recent trip to the “old” country and thank one and all for the exceptional
hospitality shown to us.
I hope you will excuse this way of distributing some of the many photos we took during
the trip. It is better to have these memories in hand without delay. If you have photos of
Boyana and me that you think we would enjoy, please send them on or hold them for our
trip next year.
It is impossible to mention everyone individually in this message but a few events
deserve special attention. We were particularly pleased to dine with my “brother” the
concert pianist Dusan Trbojevic and his wife, Gordana, and to meet with Society
Executive Board member Momcilo Simic, in between his meetings at the ITU in Geneva.
As is our custom, we spent considerable time at the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade
and with Director, Marija Sesic. Visiting is, in a manner of speaking, reviewing our
family patrimony, the essence and memorabilia of my father’s uncle, Nikola Tesla. As
usual, we were well received and look forward to the delivery of copies of some specific
archive material we requested.
While in Kraljevo, Boyana’s hometown, we attended the Press Premiere of Emir
Kusturica’s excellent new film Zivotje Cudo (Life is a Miracle) at the best theater in
Serbia, the equal of the best in Beverly Hills, California. 1 expect the film to be
nominated for an Academy Award in the category of “Best Foreign Language film.”
We also visited the Director and faculty the Nikola Tesla Electrotechnical School, and
met with students in several classes. We were the guests of many business, professional
and political leaders in the area.
I want to thank the many print and TV journalists to whom we gave interviews.
Thanks again,
William and Boyana Terbo (Trbojevich) tmstk
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: test'amemorialsociety.org
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
10 October 2004
Photos from our trip to Serbia from September 12 through October 2, 2004
Boyana and I wish to thank the many friends and colleagues, old and new, we visited on
our most recent trip to the “old” country and thank one and all for the exceptional
hospitality shown to us.
I hope you will excuse this way of distributing some of the many photos we took during
the trip. It is better to have these memories in hand without delay. If you have photos of
Boyana and me that you think we would enjoy, please send them on or hold them for our
trip next year.
It is impossible to mention everyone individually in this message but a few events
deserve special attention. We were particularly pleased to dine with my “brother” the
concert pianist Dusan Trbojevic and his wife, Gordana, and to meet with Society
Executive Board member Momcilo Simic, in between his meetings at the ITU in Geneva.
As is our custom, we spent considerable time at the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade
and with Director, Marija Sesic. Visiting is, in a manner of speaking, reviewing our
family patrimony, the essence and memorabilia of my father’s uncle, Nikola Tesla. As
usual, we were well received and look forward to the delivery of copies of some specific
archive material we requested.
While in Kraljevo, Boyana’s hometown, we attended the Press Premiere of Emir
Kusturica’s excellent new film Zivolje Cudo (Life is a Miracle) at the best theater in
Serbia, the equal of the best in Beverly Hills, California. 1 expect the film to be
nominated for an Academy Award in the category of “Best Foreign Language film.”
We also visited the Director and faculty the Nikola Tesla Electrotechnical School, and
met with students in several classes. We were the guests of many business, professional
and political leaders in the area.
I want to thank the many print and TV journalists to whom we gave interviews.
Thanks again,
William and Boyana Terbo (Trbojevich) tmstk
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslarnemorialsociety.org
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
MICHAEL IDVORSKY PUPIN - 150 th ANNIVERSARY OF HIS BIRTH
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc., its Executive Board and members join with all people
who value the scientific and technological advances that have created the modern society
in which we live in honoring the birth of Michael Pupin.
Michael Pupin, inventor, humanitarian and philosopher, is best known in the scientific
community as the inventor of the Telephone Induction Coil (1899) a device that in one
single step made long distance telephony possible. Sold in 1901 to the Bell System for
an unprecedented sum that gave him the opportunity expand his vision beyond the field
of his choosing. Also among Dr. Pupin’s 34 U.S. patents were important radio
developments and seminal work in Short Exposure X-Ray technology (1900) that led to
the safe use of the new x-ray technology in medical diagnostics.
Michael Pupin was born on October 4, 1854 in the small village of Idvor in what is now a
part of Serbia. He came to America at the age of 16 with only five cents in his pocket but
with boundless energy. Within five years he had prepared himself for entry into
Columbia College (University), graduated with honors, continued at Cambridge in
England and received his Doctorate in Physics in Germany. He returned to a teaching
position at Columbia where he soon founded the School of Electrical Engineering. Dr.
Pupin remained associated with Columbia for the rest of his life. Shortly after his death
on March 12, 1935 Columbia renamed the Physics building Pupin Physics Laboratories.
Dr. Pupin’s Peace Conference advice to President Wilson was instrumental in resolving
the borders that would define the new country that was to become Yugoslavia. Dr. Pupin
served as the President of several important professional institutions including the New
York Academy of Sciences, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Radio
Institute of America. Among his many honors was the Edison Medal (1920). Michael
Pupin wrote three well-received books including the best selling autobiography of his
fascinating life From Immigrant To Inventor , awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1924.
On a personal note I wish to privately honor Michael Pupin on this significant year. Dr.
Pupin was a personal friend and mentor of my father Nikola J. Trbojevich (Terbo) from
the very time of father’s arrival in America. It has been my privilege to honor Dr. Pupin
several times in the past. I’ve attached a brief summary of that special connection.
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary TMSsw2
(732)396-8852
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslarnernorialsociety.org
POINTS OF SPECIAL CONNECTION BETWEEN MICHAEL PUPIN AND
WILLIAM TERBO THROUGH MY FATHER, NIKOLA TRBOJEVICH (TERBO)
th
On the occasion of the 150 anniversary of the birth of Michael Pupin it is appropriate to
recall some details of a nearly lifelong appreciation of a person who was held in special
esteem by ones father, a person not related by blood but by an ethnicity combined with
professional accomplishment.
• In the Terbo (Trbojevich) household during my youth the name of Michael Pupin
was as often mentioned as that of father’s uncle, Nikola Tesla.
• When my father arrived in New York in 1914 it was Michael Pupin who first met
him. Pupin had a very specific policy of meeting and assisting talented Serbs
when they arrived in America through New York City. This began a relationship
that lasted until Pupin’s death in 1935. In spite of my grandmother, Angelina
Trbojevic (Tesla’s older sister), who very strongly instructing Tesla to “take care
of my boy” Tesla was temporarily occupied at the moment of father’s arrival.
• While my father always indicated that he already had a position as Design
Engineer at the AT&T Western Electric Division in Chicago before his arrival in
New York, I believe Pupin, who had a most influential connection with AT&T,
offered additional sponsorship help.
• Father’s rise to scientific prominence (over 150 patents including the seminal
invention of the Hypoid Gear) gave great, pleasure to both Tesla and Pupin and
gave father a continuing social and professional access to both men.
• In 1979, to commemorate the 125 lh Anniversary of Pupin’s birth, I made my first
trip to Yugoslavia to attend the Anniversary Celebration in Idvor, Pupin’s
birthplace, and other Yugoslav locations. My invitation was as an Honored Guest
of the Country (together with the Pupin Professor of Physics at Columbia
University, Madame C. S. Wu, and Isidor I. Rabi, 1944 Nobelist in Physics and a
famous product of the Columbia Physics program).
• On October 5, 1979, 1 delivered my paper Pupin and Tesla - Parallels In Slavic
Creativity to the related International Symposium Life And Work Of Michael
Idvor sky Pupin at Novi Sad, Yugoslavia. (My hospitality included tours of the
entire former Yugoslavia including visits to Tesla’s birthplace, Smiljan, Lika.)
• In 1993, to honor my father and his relationship with Michael Pupin, and with the
sponsorship of the Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. (where I held the positions of
Chairman of the Executive Board and Honorary Chairman), we made the 50-
minute documentary video From Immigrant To Inventor, Michael Pupin
Remembered. I wrote the script and provided the narration, Ljubo Vujovic was
Producer and Iwona Vujovic was Technical Director. The Documentary had its
premiere at Columbia University that winter.
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary WHT/tmssu2
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
(732) 396-8852
July, 2004
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Nikola Tesla
Celebrating his life & genius
Hosted by
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The Town of Brookhaven
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JOHN JAY LAVALLE, Supervisor
Brookhaven Town Council
Geraldine Esposito - Eugene Gerrard - Edward J. Hennessey
Charles Lefkowitz -Timothy P. Mazzei - James M. Tulip
NIKOLA TESLA DAY - JULY 10, 2003
PROGRAM AND PROCLAMATION
Hosted by The Town of Brookhaven, New York
John Jay LaValle, Supervisor
Remarks By
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary, Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
My appearance here today is a combination of an honor, a privilege and a duty.
When Nikola Tesla’s monumental contributions to the modern industrial age and to the
society it transformed are recognized, it is an honor I am given to accept that recognition
in his name. Bringing Tesla’s life and accomplishments to a wider public awareness
through events such as this is a deed well done. I am pleased to participate.
It is a privilege I am given because one-quarter of my blood comes from the same source
as Nikola Tesla’s. My grandmother was his sister, Angelina. As Tesla never married and
had children, I am (with one remaining cousin, Jovan) all that is left of this direct
bloodline. I am doubly privileged to remember Tesla through my father, also a famous
inventor, in that their parallel backgrounds of origin, education and immigration have
given me a unique insight into their personalities from a personal and family point of
view.
And third is the duty. It falls to me, through the Tesla Memorial Society, to do the best I
can to help restore Tesla’s name to just a fraction of the fame he enjoyed during his
lifetime. Nikola Tesla was a superstar of 100 years ago, much as modern athletes and
entertainers are superstars of today. His inventions were of immediate consequence.
Tesla gained society’s admiration by giving it the means to free itself from the punishing
drudgery of another age. He helped make life worth living for legions indentured to a life
of toil, and made retirement something to be looked forward to - rather than as a burden
complicated by ill health and physical decline.
It is said that great ideas come when the world needs them. Nikola Tesla met that
challenge many times. Radio, television and modern power generation, distribution and
utilization are but the most known technologies revolutionized by his scientific creativity.
While most inventors are recognized for a single step into the future, Tesla’s
contributions represent a steady march.
Tesla was an inspiration to generations, both for the ingenuity of his discoveries and for
the purity of his ambitions. Many famous scientists of following generations
enthusiastically acknowledged their debt to him. To the common man, Tesla represented
the heights attainable through the product of ones own efforts.
While Tesla was a man of modern technology, he came from another, less commercial,
age. The rewards he received were for furthering his work, rather than for his personal
ease and comfort. The product of this work was for the ultimate benefit of society. In
spite of his blaze of productivity, Tesla accomplished only a fraction of what he set out to
do. His rewards, grand as they were, were insufficient to realize all of his creativity.
Having fallen so far short of what he set as his goal, he thought himself unfulfilled.
But as Robert Browning wrote “A man’s reach should exceed his grasp. Or what’s a
heaven for?”
Copyright 2003, William H. Terbo
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
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-
Hosted by
The Town of Brookhaven
JOHN JAY LAVALLE, Supervisor
Brookhaven Town Council
Geraldine Esposito - Eugene Gerrard - Edward J. Hennessey
Charles Lefkowitz -Timothy P. Mazzei - James ML Tullo
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
A&E Biography Honors the 15 Greatest Inventors of the 20 th Century
The Arts & Entertainment Television Networks premiered a Special one-hour program
The Top 15 Inventors of the 20 th Century on Tuesday, June 4, 2002. The program was
one of a number of A&E Biography 15 th Anniversary Specials to recognize the various
subject categories covered over the life of the series.
The “Top 15” were selected and ranked through a poll of 250 journalists, inventors and
academics as the “most influential inventors of the last 100 years” who “brought us from
the industrial age to the information age.” While most of those chosen were known for
just a single innovation, the selections were also based on the contributions of an entire
career. (For dramatic effect, the inventors were presented in reverse order ranking on the
program.) The Top 15 and their specific contributions (in a necessarily simple and brief
manner) were:
1. Thomas Edison for various inventions.
2. Orville and Wilbur Wright for the airplane.
3. William Shockley (with John Bardeen and Walter Brattain) for the transistor.
4. Philo Farnsworth for television.
5. Jonas Salk for the Polio vaccine.
6. Leo Baekeland for plastics.
7. Nikola Tesla for alternating current.
8. Alan Turing for the computer.
9. Gregory Pincus for the birth control pill.
10. Leo Szilard for the atom bomb.
11. Gordon Gould for the laser.
12. Henry Ford for the assembly line.
13. Guglielmo Marconi for the radio.
14. Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer for genetic engineering.
15. Tim Berners-Lee for the World Wide Web.
The pace of the program was hectic. After deducting for an opening, five commercial
breaks, intermediate list reviews and recaps, a closing and end credits only about 40
minutes remained for brief sketches of each of the 15 honorees. Those sketches, which
ran from about two minutes to just over three minutes each, had to cover the impact of
the inventors contribution on society, the relation of the inventor’s technology to similar
or competing technologies, the source or method of inspiration, the breadth of the
inventors genius and personality and other items needed for clarification.
The program host, correspondent Harry Smith, guided the sketches each of which
included on-camera interviews with personalities commenting on aspects of the
inventor’s work or life. Those commenting ranged from people with specific technical
credentials such as John Rennie, Editor in Chief of Scientific American and George
Campbell, President of Cooper Union, to industry leaders like Steve Case, Chairman of
AOL Time Warner, to popular personalities like radio host, Don Imus and musician, Sean
Combs. Personal insights were provided by some of the inventors themselves (Tim
Berners-Lee, Stanley Cohen, Herbert Boyer and Gordon Gould) or close relatives of the
inventors (Pern Farnsworth, widow of Philo Farnsworth and William Terbo,
grandnephew of Nikola Tesla).
No fist or ranking can satisfy everyone. If the list were to exclude inventions patented
before the 20 th Century, Thomas Edison might not have appeared at all. If the inventions
were judged specifically on their impact on the 20 th Century, it would be impossible to
ignore Alexander Graham Bell. If inventors were measured by (patented) inventions,
Henry Ford would have to be excluded and Tim Berners-Lee would not make the cut. If
the ranking were based on life’s work, Nikola Tesla would rank at or near the top - if
based only on 20 th Century patents, Tesla’s ranking at number seven is about right.
Edison’s position as the American Icon for technology remains intact. The program
maintains this image by including “Some people say he single-handedly invented the 20
Century” and “ He was not the best inventor - or even the smartest - he was tenacious.”
For the sheer volume of patents (1,032) he is unchallenged. The support for top ranking
was (in order mentioned): the phonograph, reworking the ordinary light bulb to the
incandescent bulb, the movie camera, film sound synchronization, the stock ticker, the
mimeograph, telephone improvements, the first U.S. power plant and Portland Cement.
While the impact of the light bulb, phonograph and movie camera on the 20 th Century is
undeniable, only together do they make a foundation for high ranking.
The program accords Nikola Tesla praise that is often overlooked. Host Harry Smith
opens the Tesla sketch with “The man who made possible most of our modern uses of
electricity - Thomas Edison? No! It’s Nikola Tesla!” Edison was called “a stubborn
and unyielding taskmaster” and the “War of the Currents” went to Tesla. Scientific
American Editor in Chief, John Rennie calls Tesla “One of the most wildly inventive
minds that the world has ever seen.” “He was hugely influential - to say the least - in
creating Alternating Current and thereby setting a standard for all of the electrical power
grid that we know today.” The AC victory opened the door to Tesla’s advances (as
mentioned in the sketch) in radio, remote control and other inventions ranging from radar
to neon lights.
The Tesla Memorial Society supported the producers of The Top 15 Inventors of the 20 th
Century. This included providing photographs and documents to assist in creating the
Tesla program sketch and a studio on-camera interview with Society Executive Secretary,
William Terbo. The photos were widely used by the producers and A&E in the program
network promotional clips as well as in the actual production opening and Tesla sketch
segment. This gave the image of Nikola Tesla much more airtime and meets the Society
objective of personalizing Tesla for the general public. The program included end credits
for the Society, the Nikola Tesla Museum (Belgrade) and William Terbo.
TMSol
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Czech Ministry of Education To Produce Video Program On Nikola Tesla
The Czech Republic Ministry of Education has arranged to produce a short video on the
life of the famous inventor, Nikola Tesla. The video is to be shown to Czech students at
the High School level to familiarize them on the accomplishments of this giant of
electrical science who received a substantial part of his higher education in Prague. Just
as in the United States, the Ministry had become aware that very few young students
knew of Tesla’s fundamental contributions to modern society through his seminal work
on electricity and radio.
A crew from Fontis TV Production, Prague, arrived in the United States in early May
2002, to produce segments for the video. Travel details and visit arrangements were
coordinated by the Society. Their schedule included location work in Manhattan, Scotch
Plains and Niagara Falls (New York and Ontario, Canada).
Society Executive Secretary William Terbo guided the Fontis crew in Manhattan and
provided on-camera descriptions of the Tesla sites. Visited were:
• The Radio Wave Building, 49 West 27 th Street, (now a professional office
building, but formally The Gerlach a, then new, luxury residential hotel) where
Tesla lived from 1892 through 1899. A plaque commemorating Tesla was
installed in 1977. The modern lobby features four large photographic murals
including two concerning early electric energy themes.
• The Hotel New Yorker, Eighth Avenue at 34 th Street, Tesla’s residence from 1934
to his passing in January, 1943. While the Hotel has had many redecorations and
modernizations, the lobby foyer still retains many of the luxury details that were
present in Tesla’s time. A large plaque commemorating Tesla was installed on
the 34 th Street exterior of the Hotel in 2001.
• Nikola Tesla Corner, Avenue of the Americas (Sixth Avenue) at 40 th Street,
dedicated by the City of New York in 1994. Also visited was 8 West 40 th Street,
a modernized office building where Tesla maintained offices from 1915 through
1925. (Bryant Park, between Sixth Avenue and the Main New York Public
Library from 40 th to 42 nd Streets, is the site where Tesla most famously fed his
pigeons.)
• The Cathedral of St. John the Devine, Amsterdam Avenue at 112 th Street, where
the State Funeral for Tesla was held in 1943. Among the over 2,000 attending
were prominent representatives the international cultural, scientific and
governmental communities. (A New York landmark and still under construction
after 110 years, St. John the Devine is the largest Gothic Cathedral in the world.)
The Fontis crew conducted an on-camera interview with William Terbo, grandnephew of
Nikola Tesla, at his home (and Society headquarters) in Scotch Plains, New Jersey (New
York City Metropolitan Area). They also reviewed memorabilia, documents and
photographs from the Society and Terbo personal collections.
Society Executive Board member Mr. Dan Mrkich guided the Fontis group at Niagara
Falls and provided detail background of the sites. Visited were:
• Nikola Tesla statue in the Goat Island State Park, prominently located in an area
between the American and International “Horseshoe” Falls. The statue was the
1976 U.S. Bicentennial gift of the Yugoslav Government to the American
Government. Tesla is the only personage represented in the Park. Other plaques
and structures recognizing the original 1890-96 Niagara Falls AC power
construction are located adjacent to the Tesla statue.
• Niagara Falls Ontario for historical markers and superior views of the Niagara
Falls. Unfortunately, a proposed tour of the 1905 Canadian power plant in
(reserve) operation could not be accomplished at this time due to heightened
security measures.
• Niagara River on the “Maid of the Mists.” This boat tour approaches the foot of
Niagara Falls from the river level and can provide dramatic effect for the video.
The Fotis crew is scheduled to visit the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade in September
to conclude segments on the Czech Republic Ministry of Education video.
By mutual understanding, Fotis TV Productions is to provide several items including
appropriate video end credits as specified by the Society and to provide two copies of the
completed video (in North American VHS format) for Society archival use.
TMSoka
THE PATENTS OF NIKOLA TESLA, BY COUNTRY
Argentina -1, Australia - 1 6, Austria - 4, Brazil - 2, Canada -1, Cuba - 1, Denmark - 1, France - 13, Germany - 14, Great Britain - 16,
Hungary - 7, India - 1, Italy - 11, Japan - 1, Mexico - 1, New Zealand - 1, Russia - 4, South Africa - 1, Spain - 4, Sweden - 2, Switzerland - 4,
Zimbabwe - 1, and the following 112 Patents registered in the United States.
Patent # Title
Date of filing Date of registry Patent # Title
Date of filing Date of registry
334823 Commutator for Dynamo Electric May 6, 1885 Jan. 26, 1886
Machines
335786 Electric Arc Lamp : j Mar. 30,1885 Feb. 9, 1886
335787 Electric Arc Lamp
336961 Regulator for Dynamo-Electric
Machines
336962 Regulator for Dynamo-Electric June 1, 1885 Mar. 2, 1886
Machines
350954 Regulator for Dynamo-Electric Jan. 14, 1886 Oct. 19, 1886
July 13, 1885 Feb. 9, 1886
May 18, 1885 Mar. 2, 1886
Machines
359748 Dynamo-Electric Machines
318968 Electro-Magnetic Motor
381969 Electro-Magnetic Motor
381970 System oLElectrical Distribution
382279 Electro-Magnetic Motor
382280 Electrical Transmission of Power
382281 Electrical Transmission of Power
382845 Commutator for Dynamo-Electric
Machines
390413 System of Electrical Distribution
390414 Dynamo-Electric Machine
Jan. 14, 1886 Mar. 22, 1887
Oct. 12, 1887 May 1,1888
Nov. 30, 1887 May 1, 1888
Dec. 23, 1887 May 1, 1888
Nov.30, 1887 May 1, 1888
Oct. 12, 1887 May 1, 1888
Nov. 30, 1887 May 1, 1888
April 30, 1887 May 15, 1888
April 10, 1888 Oct. 2, 1888
April 23, 1888 Oct; 2, 1888
390415 Dynamo-Electric Machine or Motor May 15, 1888 Oct. 2, 1888
April 28, 1888 Oct. 9, 1888
April 24, 1888 Oct. 9, 1888
390721 Dynamo-Electric Machine
390820 Regulator for Alternate Current
Motors
396121 Thermo-magnetic Motor
401520 Method of Operating Electto-
Magnetic Motors
405858 Electro-Magnetic Motor
405859 Method of Electrical Power
Transmission % 1 \
406968 Dynamo Electric Machine
413353 Method of Obtaining DC from AC
416191 Electro-Magnetic Motor
416192 Method of Operating Electro- s
Magnetic Motors cy/
4l6l93 Electro-Magnetic Motor
416194 Electric Motor A
416195 Electro-Magnetic Motor
417794 Armature for Electric Machines
-(Tesla - Schmidt co-inventors)
418248 Electro-Magnetic Motor
424036 Electro-Magnetic Motor
428057 Pyromagneto-Electric Generator
433700 Alternating Current Electro-
Magnetic Motor
433701 Alternating Current Motor A
433702 Electrical Transformer or Induction Mar 26,1890 Aug. 5, 1890
Device ^
433703 Electro-Magnetic Motor
445207 Electro-Magnetic Motor
447920 Method of Operating Arc Lamps
447921 Alternating Electric Current - .
Generator
454623 System of Electric Lighting
454622 System for Electric Lighting
455067 Electro-Magnetic Motor
455068 Electrical Motor
455069 Electric Incandescent Lamp
459772 Electro-Magnetic Motor
462418 Method of and Apparatus lor
Electrical Conveyors & Distribution
464666 Electro-Magnetic Motor
464667 Electrical Condenser
487796 System of Electrical Transmission
of Power
511559
Electrical Transmission of Power
Dec. 8,1888
Dec. 26, 1893
511560
System of Electrical Power
Transmission
Dec. 8,1888
Dec. 26,1893
511915
Electrical Transmission of Power
May 15,1888
511916
Electric Generator
Aug. 19,1893
Jan. 2,1894
512340
Coil for Electro-Magnets
July 7, 1893
Jan. 9, 1894
514167
Electric Conductor
Jan. 2, 1892
Feb. 6, 1894
514168
Means for Generating Electric
Currents
Aug. 2, 1893
Feb. 6,1894
514169
Reciprocating Engine
Aug.19,1893
Feb.6, 1894
514170
Incandescent Electric Light
Jan. 2, 1892
Feb. 6, 1894
514972
Electric Railway System
Jan. 2, 1892
Feb. 20, 1894
514973
Electric Motor
Dec. 15, 1893
Feb. 20,1894
517900
Steam Engine
Dec.29, 1893
April 10,1894
524426
Electromagnetic Motor
Oct.20,1888
Aug 14,1894
555190 Alternating Motor May 15,1888 Feb. 25, 1896
567818 Electric Condenser June 17,1896 Sept.15,1896
568176 Apparatus for Producing Electric April 22,1896 Sept.22,1896
Currents of High Frequency and Potential
558177 Apparatus for Producing Ozone June 17,1896
568178 Method of Regulating Apparams for June 20,1896
Producing Currents of High Frequency
568179 Method of and Apparatus for July 6,1896
Producing Currents of High Frequency
568180 Apparatus for Producing Electrical July 9,1896
Currents of High Frequency
577670 Apparatus for Producing Electrical
Currents of High Frequency
577671 Manufacture of Electrical
Condensers, Coils, etc
583953 Apparatus for Producing Currents
of High Frequency
Sept.22,1896
Sept.22,1896
Sept.22,1896
Sept.22,1896
Sept.3,1896 Feb.23, 1897
Nov.5, 1896 Feb.23,1897
Oct. 19, 1896 June 8, 1897
Mar. 30, 1886 Jan. 15,1889
Feb.18,1899 Apr. 16, 1889
Jan. 8, 1889 , June 15, 1889
Mar. 14,1889 June 25, 1889
Mar. 23, 1889 July 16, 1889
June 12, 1889 Oct. 22, 1889
May 20, 1889 Dec. 3, 1889
May 20, 1889 Dec. 3, 1889
■ ■ ■'■■■ ■■■•■" . . ...
May 20, 1889 Doc. 3, 1889 .
May 20, 1889 Dec. 3, 1889
May 20, 1889 Dec. 3, 1889
June 28, 1889 Dec. 24, 1889
May 20, 1889 Dec. 31, 1889
May 20, 1890 March 25,1890
May 26, 1887 May 13, 1890
Mar. 26, 1890 Aug. 5, 1890
" • j'.^lI
. , p j
Mar. 26, 1890 Aug. 5, 1890
April 4, 1890 Aug. 5, 1890
May 20,1889 Jan. 27, 1891
Oct. 1, 1890 Mar. 10,1891
Nov. 15, 1890 Mar. 10, 1891
^ '•-A* [A;* v •« jfe >"
Nov known June 26, 1891
April 26, 1891 June 23, 1891
Jan. 27,1891 June 30, 1891
Mar. 27, 1891 June 30,1891
May 14, 1891 June 30, 1891
April 6,1889 Sept.22, 1891
|A ' 1 ;
July 13, 1891 Dec. 8, 1891
May 15 1888 Dec. 13, 1892
593138
609245
609246
609247
609248
609249
609250
609251
61L719
613735
613809
613819
645576i
Electrical Transformer Mar. 20, 1897 Nov. 2, 1897
Electrical-Circuit Controller Dec. 2, 1897 Aug. 16, 1898
Electric-Circuit Controller Feb 28, 1898 Aug. 16,1898
Electric-Circuit Controller Mar. 12,1898 Aug.16,1898
Electric-Circuit Controller Mar. 12,1898 Aug.16,1898
Electric-Circuit Controller Mar. 12,1898 Aug.16,1898
Electric Igniter for Gas-Engines Feb.17,1897 Aug.16,1898
Electrical-Circuit Controller June 3, 1897 Aug.16,1898
Electrical-Circuit Controller : Dec.10, 1897 Oct. 4, 1898
Electric Circuit Controller April 19,1898 Nov.8,1898
Method of and Apparatus for July 1,1898 Nov.8,1898
Controlling Mechanism of Moving Vessels or Vehicles
Filings Tube
System of Transmission of
Electrical Energy*
I §
Not Known
Sept.!,1897
Nov. 8, 1898
March 3,1900
Sept.?,1897 May 15, 1900
June 15, 1900 Aug. 14, 1900
649621 Apparatus for Transmission of
Electrical Energy*
655838 Method of Insulating Electric
Conductors
605012 Means for Incicasing the Intensity..- Mar. 21;. 1900 Oct.22,.190»
of Electrical Oscillations VI |f
685953 Method of intensifying and Utilizing June 24,1899 Nov. 5, 1901
Effects Transmitted Through Natural Media
685954 Method of Utilizing Effects Transmitted
Through Natural Media Aug. 1, 1899 Nov. 5, 1901
685955 Apparatus for utilizing Effects June 24, 1899 Nov. 5, 1901
Transmitted From a Distance to a Receiving Device
IU Through Natural Media
685956 Apparatus for Utilizing Effects Aug. 1, 1899 Nov. 5, 1901
■ Transmitted Through Natural Media
685957 Apparatus for the Utilization of Mar. 21, 1901 Nov.5,1901
. II
685958
723188
725605
787412
Radiant Energy v’ - *
Method of Utilizing Radiant Energy Mar. 21,1901
Method for Signaling July 16,1900
System of Signaling July 16, 1900
mmm
HI8
Art of Transmitting Energy
Through the Natural Medium
106.11.42 Fluid propulsion
1062206 Turbine
1113716 Fountain
i 1 19732 Apparatus for Transmitting
Electrical Energy “
1209359 Speed Indicator7- -
12661.75 Lighting-Protector
1274816 Speed hidicator
13L17L8 Ship's Log
1402025 Frequency Meter
1655113 Method of Aerial Transportation
1655114 Apparatus for Aerial Transportation Oct. 4, 1927
• y..: gy- 7 iy>, ■'
May 16,1900
■
Oct. 21, 1909
Oct. 21, 1909
Oct. 28, 1913
Jan. 8, 1902
1 liiifiil
May 29, 1914
May 6, 1916
Dec. 18,1916
Dec. 18, 1916
Feb. 21, 1916
Dec. 18, 1916
Dec. 18, 1916
Sept. 9, 1921
Nov. 5, 1901
Apr. 14 1903
Apr. 14,1903
Apr. 18, 1905
May 6, 1913
May 6, 1913
Oct. 13, 1914
Dec. 1, 1914
Dec. 19, 1916
May 14, 1918
Aug. 8, 1918
Sept. 2, 1919
Feb.3,1920
Jan. 2, 1921
Jan. 3, 1922
Jan. 3, 1928
Jan. 3, 1928
‘These two patents are the basis of modern wireless communications. Tesla was
a perfectionist, and Guillermo Marconi, a more commercial man, got a jump on
him, using, or in Tesla’s words, “pirating, seventeen of his patents" on his way to
fame and fortune. But on June 21, 1943, five months after Tesla’s death, the Su¬
preme Court of the United States annulled Marconi’s patent, and handed down
the decision that Tesla “had anticipated all other contenders... thus making subse¬
quent patents on the subject null and void,” and proclaimed Nikola Tesla the true
inventor of radio.
‘“Twelve years to register this patent! Westinghouse Company - “whose busi¬
ness is largely founded on my inventions,” said Tesla - exploited this invention
“by force”.
1 2003 D. Mrkich
www.teslamemorialsociety.org
erects: Cokm of Jlrookfjaken foonlk like t 0 Ijonor ±t|B onstanking
accompli 04 emni 0 0 f special inkikiknals krlp Ijake mak a profound impact 00 our 0 ocieip; ank
Ijereas: Dwlp 10, 2003 marks ilje 1470} kiriljkap of 0}e renokmek scientist ank
genius 'Nikola Cesla; ank
ereas: P^e are prikelekgek in sfjare resikence in tlje Cokrn krfjere JMtkola tesla's
piarkenclgffe Jkakoratorp is sitnatek; ank
k
ermsz Nikola Cesla s inkeniions t}ake formek ilje fnnnkation of mokern science,
tljerebp shaping ttje £oap foe like iokap; nokr
©prefure (31 -j Dotpx Dag JiaJlalie, Jinperktsnr of ilje Cofrrn of IProoklptken, join
kiiljt mp colleagues on itje Cokrn Council in proclaiming il|is 100} kap of Drtlp as
Geraldine Esposito,
C o uncilwom an
Charles A. Lefkowitz,
C ouncilman
ter and always required for thb na-;
tional register. He said the prop^r|§<
was eligible for both. Merely being'
associated with White is significant!
he said. ityg
Wardenclyffe may have been
White’s last creation. In 1906 he.was
shot and killed by the jealous hus¬
band of a former chorus girl, Evelyn.
Nesbit, at the original Madison;
Square Garden, which he designed.
Tesla, born in 1856 in Croatia;
Dickenson V. Alley/Tesla Wardenclyffe Project
Interior of the Colorado Springs Experimental Station in which Nikola Tesla sits next to the extra coil of his large magnifying transmitter in 1899.
Tesla, a Little-Reeo
By JOHN: RATHER
J T’S a safe bet that relatively few
people on Long Island have
heard of Nikola Tesla, the world¬
shaking electrical genius whose
invention of polyphase alternating
current made him, more than any¬
one, the man who electrified the 20th
century.
Even fewer people are likely to
know that Tesla did some of his most
visionary work in a laboratory built
for him in Shoreham exactly a centu¬
ry ago by Stanford White, the Gilded
Age architect who was a friend and
admirer.
And it would be a surprise to al¬
most everyone that the 94-by-94-foot
laboratory, known as Wardenclyffe
and envisioned by Tesla as a proto¬
type fob a stupendous ivqrld/cbmmm
nications and wireless electric sys¬
tem, is still standing and in relatively
good shape only yards from Route
25A, a major state highway.
Today the laboratory’s red-brick
facade is barely visible through over¬
grown foliage from a fence around
the 16.2-acre property. The unused
site, now owned by Agfa-Gevaert,
the Belgian photographic film giant,
fS closed to the public, it is Undergo¬
ing a state-ordered cleanup for soil
ahd groundwater contamination
linked to Peerless Photo Produpts, a
previous oyaier that whs .acquired by
Agfa.
, ,A security guard who never heard
Of Nikola Tesla turned away visitors
on a recent afternoon. The property,
he said, was unused .and sealed shut
fyliile the owners decided what to do
with it.
Hanging in the balance,"Tesla his¬
torians and preservationist said, is
the fate of the last intact Tesla work¬
place anywhere in the world and a
gem of Long Island history too long
left in the rough.
“This is an extremely important
landmark,” said Barbara Van Liew,
an architectural historian from St.
James, “Bw.aU means,, it ..should., he
fers on the site, ranging from devel¬
opers to Tesla-related societies^’
said the statement by Robert Hoff¬
mann, director of general services
and facilities for the Agfa Corpora¬
tion in Ridgefield Park. But, he add¬
ed, the property is not now under
contract or listed with any broker.! .
Mr. Hoffmann said that the site
was structurally sound and that com¬
pany officials were aware of its his¬
toric significance.
The company declined to support
listing it on state and national regis¬
ters of historic places. Once the prop¬
erty is sold or donated, applying for
that designation would be up to the
new owner, Mr. Hoffmann said.
As long ago as 1967, the Town of
Brookhaven named the laboratory
property a historic site. But no for¬
mal application has been made fq|
the state designation, a precursor &
the federal designation.
Janies P; Warren, a historic preg|
ervation program analyst for the
New York State Office of Parks, Rec¬
reation and Historic Preservation,
said owner consent was usually.re¬
quired for a listing on the state regis-
A rival of Edison’s
without the
financial backing,'-'
THE NEW YORK TIMES, SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 10, 2002
preserved. Tesla invented a lot of the
things we use today, and he doesn't
get much credit.”
In perfecting the alternating-cur¬
rent power system now used around
the world, Tesla prevailed over
Thomas Edison, who believed in an
inferior direct-current system and
strove in vain to prove that alternat¬
ing current was unsafe.
It was Tesia, not Marconi, who
invented radio. He also harnessed
Niagara Falls for hydropower and
invented,' among many other things,
a bladeless steam turbine, the first
remote-controlled torpedoes and de¬
vices that had applications in missile
defense and computers, long after
his death m 1943. Mi .
. .Now the race is on to preserve
Tesla’s legacy and White’s architec¬
ture in Shoreham . . . *
Two groups, the Tesla. Warden¬
clyffe Project, a national Organiza¬
tion based in Colorado,' and Friends
of- Science East in Shoreham, are
hoping to have the site listed on the
state and,national registers of histor¬
ic places; Their plans also call for
establishing a Nikola Tesia Science,
Center in the laboratory building,
where Tesla memorabilia would be
put on display.
The groups are asking Agfa to
donate the site to the Town of Brook-
haven, where Shoreham is situated,
to clear the way for the historic
listings and the science centeh t
But Agfa has been noncommittal,
and the standstill is likely to persist
until the environmental remediation
is complete. The State Department
■'TiyfaonWffhhattgS’fibfefs for most hf
his life. He was already an acclaimed
inventor when he arrived in Shore-
ham in 1902, He was fleeing Manhat¬
tan, where his celebrity had begun k>
interfere with work in his laboratory;
on Houston Street, for the solitude of
the Long Island countryside. The
new laboratory was financed with
$150,000 from J. P. Morgan, who ex¬
pected to make a fortune on. Tesla’s;
work;--WL;;.." -'W. .N-P/W;
■ Somewhere m the undergrowth at
the Shoreham site are'remnants of
the. concrete-footings for the 187-foot
radio and electrical transmission
tower that a. White, associate, T D:
Crow, erected for Tesla m 1903 .
The. octagonal wood-frame tower,
perched over a 120-foot underground
shaft, was the core of a generating,
system designed to use the earth and
the upper reaches of the atmosphere 1
as conductors of electrical impulses
that would reach around the globe. ...
Erprri 1903; until it was razed in-
1917,-the never-quite-completed tow¬
er rose like a giant mushroom over
eastern Long Island and could be
seen from across the Sound in Con-,
necticut. .
Tesla’s experiments faltered when
Morgan declined to invest more'
money. Tesla struggled on, mortgag¬
ing the property to raise cash. But by
1915 he was out of money, and the
property went into foreclosure, He
remained convinced that success,
had beeii at hand. It is a simple fedt
of scientific: electrical engineering-,
only i expensive, he wrote. RKhsJJ
faint-hearted, doubting world.
.
The Wardencl
Power-Plant m
which is overseeing the cleanup, n,- - i
cently asked for more te'stmg for v - - ' J . ' .i - 1 '£?. ‘ /t t
possible contammation It is' not
clear when alb,work will be done.
“At this point everything is be-
tween Agfa and the state,” said Gary
Peterson, a spokesman for the Tesla V" ||H
Wardenclyffe Project in Brocken-
ridge, Colo. “But Agfa Has let us. -- - . . M i
know they ard-aware of the historic T1 ?? Tesla laboratory site fji 1997; .preservationist^ are urging the owner to donate it to Bfookhaven,
significance of the Wardenclyffe site
and that they did not intend to do
anything untoward.”’
Jane Alcorn, the pre|iSijit'Vpf ■
Friends of Science East, said a»r,e-^
cent study! done by" Shorehaisi reSp'
dents envisioned the Tesla, site as a;
center for the hamlet and a place to
Agfa may decide to sell to a develop¬
er once the cleanup is over. T
The company, which: has regional
offices in Ridgefield Park, N.J., said
in a.statement that it would consider
all options. “Agfa has had many of-
111111
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Trip to Belgrade and Serbia, September 9 through 30, 2002
Society Executive Secretary, William Terbo, spent 22 days in Yugoslavia (Serbia) of
which five full days were spent in Belgrade (plus two days involved in arrival and
departure). The better part of two days was spent in meetings and events at the Nikola
Tesla Museum (Muzej Nikole Tesle) in Belgrade, and with Director, Mme Marija Sesic.
On Tuesday, September 17 th , William and Boyana Terbo placed a large floral display at
the foot of the pedestal on which is placed the golden sphere holding the ashes of Nikola
Tesla. The pedestal and sphere are located in a place of honor, a draped and paneled
large alcove, in a quiet area of the first floor of the Museum. The ribbon attached to the
floral display read in part “Your Family Remembers You and the World Remembers
You”. A video and photographs were made of the presentation for press, family and
Society archives.
The Nikola Tesla Museum is a popular destination for school class field trips. The
Museum provides professional tour presentations for these groups. Every day several
classes visit the Museum to absorb something of the presence of this icon through his
personal effects, to participate in demonstrations of the Tesla Coil, the robot boat and
other exhibits, and to see the honors given Tesla from around the world. While at the
Museum, to the delight of their teachers, Mr. Terbo took time to interact with a 5 th Grade
(11 and 12 year olds) History class and, later, with a 6 th Grade combined Physics and
English classes. The children were enthusiastic and asked many thoughtful and serious
questions both about Tesla and Mr. Terbo. Each group insisted on individual autographs
and each teacher requested a written paragraph to bring back to school as a reminder of
the visit. This contact was very special for both the students and Mr. Terbo.
This year represents the 50 th year that the Museum has been open to the public. The
principal founder of the Museum was Dr. Sava Kosanovic, nephew of Nikola Tesla and
former Yugoslav Ambassador to the United States and the United Nations. Mr. Terbo’s
father, Nicholas Trbojevich, and Dr. Kosanovic were very close in several ways: close in
age, as first cousins raised nearby, and both went away to University in Budapest.
(Society Executive Board member Charlotte Muzar was secretary to Dr. Kosanovic both
in New York at the time of Tesla’s death and later in Washington during his tenure as
Ambassador.) Mr. Terbo had ample time to meet and talk to Dr. Kosanovic on his visits
to Detroit during his time in the U.S. in the late 1940’s and early 1950’s.
Later on September 17 th , William and Boyana Terbo placed a large bouquet on Dr.
Kosanovic’s memorial at the Belgrade Central Cemetery. The memorial is prominently
located on the right-hand side of the central walkway about 50 meters from the Cemetery
Grand Entrance. Photos were taken for family and Society archives.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
A&E Biography Program To Honor Inventors
The Arts & Entertainment Television Networks is preparing a number of A&E Biography
15 th Anniversary Special video programs to recognize the various subject categories of
the series. One Special is being prepared to honor “The 15 Most Important Inventors and
Inventions of the Twentieth Century.” Broadcast is scheduled to air in the fall of 2002, to
coincide with the Biography program’s anniversary year.
The 15 Inventors and Inventions honored are (in alphabetical order by inventor/s):
• Leo Baekeland: Plastics (Bakelite), 1907
• Tim Berners-Lee: World Wide Web
• Herbert Boyer & Stanley Cohen: Medical Genetic Engineering, 1986
• Thomas Edison: Various (Phonograph, Motion Picture Camera)
• Philo Farnsworth: Electronic Television, 1927
• Henry Ford: Assembly Line
• Gordon Gould: Laser
• Guglielmo Marconi: Radio Signals
• Gregory Pincus: Birth Control Pill (Oral Contraceptive), 1954
• Jonas Salk: Polio Vaccine, 1955
• William Shockley, John Bardeen & Walter Brattain: Transistor, 1947
• Leo Szilard: Chain Nuclear Reaction, 1942
• Nikola Tesla: Various (Tesla Coil, Radio Tuned Circuits, Remote Control)
• Alan Turing: Programmable Computer
• Orville & Wilbur Wright: Airplane (With Motor), 1903
(The specific inventions to be associated with each inventor/s will be defined when the
program is aired.)
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary of the Tesla Memorial Society and grandnephew
of Nikola Tesla provided the on-camera interview for the Tesla segment. Personal,
Society and Tesla Museum photographs are to be presented as a part of the segment.
It is a testament to the breadth of Tesla’s inventive genius that he be included among the
greatest of the Twentieth Century. The greater part of Tesla’s fame is usually associated
with his Alternating Current Discoveries. Even Tesla’s most important his radio patents
predate the turn of the Century. (A fact that defeated Marconi’s claim for radio patents.)
Tesla’s vision was so advanced that work done a century ago still bears fruit and adds to
his current reputation.
WHT/tmsna(3)
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Trip to Sydney Australia, August 29 through September 8, 2002
Society Executive Secretary, William Terbo, was invited as a guest and to speak at the St.
Lazarus Serbian Orthodox Church 6 th Annual Ball held on Saturday, August 31 st in the
Ball Room of the Australian Technology Park, Sydney Australia. Commemorating
Nikola Tesla was the theme of the Ball and Mr. Terbo, as one of the two remaining
closest living relatives of Nikola Tesla, was the featured speaker. While Nikola Tesla
holds a place of high honor among all elements of world scientific, academic and cultural
societies, his Serbian ethnicity earns him the highest esteem among world Serbs.
Over 250 attended the Ball. The Parish Priest, Fr. Miodrag Perich, and the President of
the Parish Board, Mr. Petar Kozlina, also made brief remarks. Musical entertainment,
traditional dancing, dinner and dancing completed the Program. Mr. Terbo greeted as
many of the guests individually as time would allow during the Ball. Many additional
contacts were made at subsequent meetings and dinners. This provided the opportunity
to see a bit of Sydney and meet the Australian people.
Mr. Terbo and the Tesla Memorial Society thank the hosts for their most excellent
friendship and hospitality.
The Society presented complimentary copies of the new biography Tesla: Master of
Lightning and two of the Society’s most popular videos (PAL format, the European and
Australian video standard) as well as several other Society items for distribution and to be
used in the Church Library.
•
Mr. Terbo acquired several video items in Sydney including a copy of the 1992 Yugoslav
network TV program (PAL format, Serbian language) commemorating the centenary of
Tesla’s 1892 visit to Belgrade. Also received were a Tesla CD produced by the Church
and the Diocese for distribution at the Ball and a very interesting new (1999) British
Tesla biography The Man Who Invented The Twentieth Century by Robert Lomas.
Mr. Terbo gave interviews to local and Australian media. Preliminary planning has
begun on a cooperative arrangement between the Society and interested Australians to
form an associated Chapter of the Tesla Memorial Society serving Australia and New
Zealand.
On Sunday, September 8 th , Mr. Terbo departed Sydney and continued to Belgrade.
TMSot
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
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PRESENTS
"ROOM 207: NIKOLA TESLA"
Writer: Paul Brown
Director/ composer and sound design: Max Lyandvert
Installation and costumes: Feruu Seljuik
Lighting Design: Allan Hirons
Performers:
Thor Blomfield - Nikola Tesla
Brian Carbee - Mark Twain, J. Pierpont Morgan, Robert McMahon, the Engineer
John Noble - Thomas Edison, Robert Underwood Johnson, Willis Strauss, the Physicist
Felicity Price - Djouka Tesla, Katherine Johnson, Nicole Sharpe
Helmut Bakaitis (the Architect) - Voice of Nikola Tesla
Production/Stage Manager: Sharna Galvin
Electrical Experiments: Robert McMahon (Australian Technical Industries)
Sound: Jeremy Silver
Video Production: Tim Elston
Publicity: Brian Keogh
Poster Design: Katerina Stratos
Video Recording: Toby Oliver, Cineartimage
CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT
Patrick Nolan, Thor Blomfield, Paul Brown, Max Lyandvert, Felicity Price, Gabriela Tylesova,
Mark Kilmurry, Andrew McDonald
SCENE LIST
PROLOGUE:
The Museum / Hotel
SCENE 1:
The Field of Dreams
INTERLUDE:
Robert and Willis
SCENE 2:
Tesla and His Mother
SCENE 3:
America, Tesla and Edison
INTERLUDE:
A Scientist and an Engineer
SCENE 4:
My Inventions
1
INTERVAL
SCENE 5:
Three Friends: Tesla and the Johnsons
INTERLUDE:
Building Wardenclyffe
SCENE 6:
J. Pierpont Morgan
SCENE 7:
Death
INTERLUDE:
Rebirth: Nicole Sharpe
EPILOGUE:
Tesla's Coil
Characters
Nikola Tesla: The inventor of Alternating Current power systems, radio. X-rays etc; Serbian who
migrated to America and lived among New York high society.
Djouka Tesla : Nikola's mother. An inventor in her own right, from the Serbian village of
Smiljan.
Thomas Edison: American inventor of the electric light bulb, of electricity supply systems, and
arguably of moving pictures; champion of Direct Current systems. Gave Tesla his first job in
America.
J. Pierpont Morgan: Famous New York banker and philanthropist at the turn of the Twentieth
Century; funded Tesla's work until the Wardenclyffe project got out of hand.
Robert Underwood Johnson: Publisher of Century Magazine, who became Tesla's friend, and
published several of Tesla's visionary writings.
Katherine Johnson: Robert's wife and lifelong friend of Tesla. Professed to be in love with the
inventor.
Mark Twain: the famous author, who visited Tesla’s laboratory in New York.
A 'Guide': A voice, and a projected image that could be what remains of Tesla himself.
Modern Day Engineers/Witnesses
Robert McMahon: An electrical engineer working in suburban Sydney to recreate Tesla's
experiments. Has built his own Tesla Coil, now building a working model of Wardenclyffe.
Willis Strauss: A consulting electrical engineer and inventor; assisting Robert with his
experiments; one time member of the Australian Tesla Club.
A Physicist: retired scientist who worked on electrical systems and instruments in the post war
period.
An Engineer: Electrical inventor working in the post war period, who helped build several
important electrical inventions.
Nicole Sharpe: High School student, electrical systems inventor, and winner of a national
competition for sustainable design.
Sources:
The 'Tesla voiceover' is derived from Nikola Tesla’s own writings, in one scene from letters
between Tesla and Katharine Johnson, and in another scene letters between Tesla and J. Pierpont
Morgan. The main sources are:
'My Inventions' by Nikola Tesla in Electrical Experimenter, 1919
The Problem of Increasing Human Energy’ by Nikola Tesla in Century magazine, June 1900
We also acknowledge the invaluable background material derived from:
Tesla Man out of Time, by Margaret Cheney 1981
The Man who invented the Twentieth Century: Nikola Tesla, Forgotten Genius of Electricity, by
Robert Lomas 1999
Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla, by John O’Neill 1968
'Nikola Tesla', article in Science magazine, by Kenneth Swezey May 1958
NIKOLA TESLA
Nikola Tesla, bom in 1856, was a Serbian electrical engineer and physicist who,
in the West, remains relatively unknown despite being responsible for some of
the most influential inventions in the history of modem technology. His story
pl um bs many of the great themes of human existence: genius, success, fame,
sexual desire, obsession, truth, love and grief.
Migrating to America as the Twentieth Century was about to dawn, Tesla
developed a way of harnessing Alternating Current, to create a form of
'polyphase' electrical power which still turns the wheels of industry and
domestic life. He also invented radio before Marconi, as recognized in the US
High Court in 1943. Tesla arguably developed the keys to modem
communication technology, and he conceptualized long range weaponry that
was ultimately perverted into Ronald Reagan's Star Wars program.
And why is Tesla largely unknown in the West? Was it because of his
personality, or because he was an 'alien 1 in American society? Was it because of
his inventions, or was it what he had to say about humanity? His proposals,for
free transmission of electrical power cut against the commercialization of
technology which characterized the Twentieth Century; and Tesla's plans made
him an outcast amongst bankers and industrialists.
Philosopher, poet, showman and spiritualist, it seems Tesla made his mark as an
intellectual and theoretical thinker in an era when the character and role of
'science' was in great flux. Thomas Edison, famous for Direct Current electrical
systems by the time Tesla reached America, was constructed as an 'empirical'
scientist using a trial and error approach. Tesla in contrast relied on imagination
and theoretical calculation. Both men used the popular press and public
presentation, even spectacle, to communicate their knowledge, prompting
backlash from researchers wanting to 'purify' science as a knowledge making
enterprise governed by norms and institutionalized through scholarly journals
and associations. Ultimately Tesla fell foul of such fraternity as his ideas and
inventions seemed to become more fanciful and even heretical in his later life.
Despite his extraordinary (even terrifying) accomplishments Tesla was largely
forgotten in both the eyes of the public and in scientific circles and ended his life
destitute, lonely, and under FBI scrutiny. He died alone in his New York hotel
room in 1943.
The play in context
This is a particularly relevant time for such a play to be developed. How
optimistic can we remain about a century charged with electricity? In the modem
world, electricity and the equipment it powers have become autonomous forms
of life - out of control and as self perpetuating as the human race itself, yet
unsustainable and in need of system overhaul.
Technological change is rapid and seemingly unstoppable. In Australia, issues
such as our energy options, the National Electricity Grid, and rapidly expanding
communications technology have vast implications for the way in which we lead
our lives, and yet many of us know very little about them. Nor do we know how
to control such developments.
Our production takes key moments in Tesla's life and links these to the way in
which the Twentieth Century has exploited technology to both enhance and
potentially undermine the fabric of our society.
Artscience and Knowledge
> The methods used by the Arts and the Sciences are sometimes thought to be
vastly different. But in both areas of endeavour, knowledge about the world is
built from observation and experimentation. This knowledge-making potential
suggests that the integrated use of 'artscience' might make for better decisions
about 'what then must we do' (eg. about social and population issues, about
environmental crisis, about putting an end to war).
Certainly in our show we want to make art by performing science, just as we
want to explain science by performing art. lire project combines scientific
experiments with contemporary physical theatre and installation art, and in
doing this we recognize that science can provide fresh metaphors and new
language to explore narratives, characters and themes. Coming from the other
direction, we can say that our show will enhance the public understanding of
science, for example through portrayal on stage of experiments and by exploring
through story the 'cultural embeddedness' and social history of particular
technologies.
But beyond this (and some might call our show 'transdisciplinary') we want to
create some new hybrid knowledge through the relationship between cast, crew
and audience. In the case of Room 207 Nikola Tesla, the knowledge is about
energy systems and our choice of energy technologies, relevant to decisions
about the kind of future we all might desire. We depict the life of one man,
Nikola Tesla, inventor of Alternating Current and therefore of our taken-for-
granted electrical systems. But in some ways we also present an entire century,
the story of electrical power and energy use - in fact a tale and a commentary on
the whole modernist way of life, and on today's attempts to reform energy
systems to make them sustainable.
Basic Explanation of the operation of a Tesla High Voltage Transformer
The Tesla high voltage generator is a radio frequency transformer comprising a
primary winding of a few turns magnetically coupled to a secondary coil having
many turns.
The secondary coil, together with the top electrode, forms a radio frequency
resonant circuit. The primary coil, with associated high voltage capacitor, is
tuned to be in resonance with it. The coupling between the two coils is
optimized.
The capacitor, charged to a high voltage, discharges into the primary through a
spark gap. This results in a powerful radio frequency current oscillation in the
primary circuit. This in turn induces an extremely large radio frequency voltage
in the secondary winding to produce a spectacular electrical breakdown from the
top electrode.
THANKYOUS
Miles Van Dorsen, Patricia Chriss, Gavin Wild, Rob Largent, Stephanie Ridgeway, Joey Ruigrok,
Vicki Bamford, David Miller, Gavin Robbins, Kent Blackmore, The Amazing Otto Butkus, Lee Wilson,
Iain McGill, Hugh Outhred, Ted Spooner, Trevor Blackburn, Robert McMahon, Willis Strauss,
Nicole Sharpe, Mark Mitchell, Lee Wegner, Kaira Hachefa, Company B, Sydney Theatre Company,
NIDA, ATYP, Griffen Theatre
X-ray Theatre
29 Ivanhoe Street
Marrickville
NSW 2204
Ph 95581003
Mob 0401 063 220
Email: x-ravtheatre@optusnet.com.au
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
May/November 2002
Addition and update to Society “Recent Events and Activities” dated April 2002. For
additional detail on the following items, visit our website or contact the Society directly.
In Memoriam: Daniel M. Dumych
The Society regrets to announce the premature passing of Honorary Director
Daniel Dumych, Tesla biographer and Niagara Falls, New York, tourism activist. Using
the advantage of living and working in the area, his research uncovered many new, or
previously overlooked, facets on the history of the harnessing of the power of Niagara
Falls. The revolution of the introduction of alternating current power, based on the
patents of Nikola Tesla and brought to realization by Tesla and George Westinghouse,
was a prominent focus of his several authoritative published works. Mr. Dumych
produced Nikola Tesla - The Inventor Who Changed the World published by the Niagara
Falls Convention & Visitors Bureau. He also wrote Nikola Tesla and The Development
of Electrical Power at Niagara Falls as a part of the Educational Curriculum Kit
distributed to the nearly 500 High Schools in the serving area of the Niagara Mohawk
Power Corporation. This distribution was in connection with the Centennial Celebration
Century of Electrical Energy, November 15, 1996 sponsored by Niagara Mohawk,
Westinghouse Electric, General Electric and the New York Power Authority. The
Society expresses our most sincere condolences to his mother, Ann.
Auction of Letters and Memorabilia
Society Executive Board member Leland Anderson amassed the largest collection
of Tesla memorabilia, correspondence, photos and equipment in private hands. Mr.
Anderson is a noted researcher, writer and lecturer on Tesla and Tesla technology. The
collection was accumulated over a period of more than 50 years. Over the past five
years, Mr. Anderson has been distributing different parts of his collection to various
institutions and organizations to be used for research and display. Now the final portion,
original correspondence in manuscript form, is to be offered at auction in the near future
by the Swann Galleries in Manhattan. Details concerning the auction will be transmitted
as soon as available.
John Wagner Honored at Annual Telluride Tech Festival
Society Executive Board member Mr. John W, Wagner was one of five honored
at the Third Annual Telluride Tech Festival held in August in Telluride, Colorado. The
Festivals are organized to celebrate the past, present and future of technology. Mr.
Wagner was recognized for his efforts of 20 years in creating a program that awards
bronze busts of Tesla to leading American Universities. By ensuring that the busts be
placed in important and appropriate University locations, they serve as a permanent
memorial and a constant reminder of Tesla’s eminence in electrical science. Honored
with Mr. Wagner were: Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel laureate who identified the Quark;
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
2
Vinton Cerf, Internet pioneer; Tim Berners-Lee, originator of the World Wide Web; and
Alan Kay, computer pioneer.
Nikola Tesla was among those honored at the First Telluride Tech Festival in
2000. One of the first commercial applications of Tesla technology was the 1891
construction of a conveniently located AC power plant supplying electric power by wire
to an area gold and silver mine too remote for DC power. Availability of on site electric
power transformed the efficiency of early Colorado mining. Tesla grandnephew William
Terbo represented the family and the Society and spoke at the 2000 event.
University of Illinois Receives Bust of Tesla
The University of Illinois is the ninth prominent University to receive a bronze
bust of Tesla. Society Executive Board member Mr. John W. Wagner is the founder and
guiding light of the Tesla Bust program. In early September, Mr. Wagner and Society
Executive Board member, Wallace Edward Brand, were joined by senior UI faculty, staff
and students at the Installation Ceremony held in the UI Electrical Engineering Building
in Champaign-Urbana, Illinois. Illinois joins Harvard, Yale, Princeton, MIT, CalTech
and the Universities of Michigan, Wisconsin and Maryland as recipients of Tesla busts.
Purdue University is scheduled to receive a Tesla bust later this year.
Tesla Bust Program
Executive Board member John Wagner has been negotiating placement of Tesla
busts at America’s most prominent Universities since the first bust was created in 1988.
The busts are cast in bronze with black granite bases and bronze plaques. The bust image
is that of a middle-aged Tesla about 90% life size. The plaque reads in part NIKOLA
TESLA, 1856-1943, HIS NAME MARKS AN EPOCH. The bust and base weigh about
250 pounds. By necessity, the bust must be of the highest quality in both artistic
representation and in material detail. Anything less would not be appropriate for
presentation to the prestige institutions where they are displayed in honored settings. (A
typical installation is that of Harvard. Located in the Physics Library of the Jefferson
Physics Building, the bust and base are placed on a specially constructed shelf
illuminated by a spotlight shining at all times.)
Each bust and base cost several thousand dollars. Some funds are raised through
contributions, but most is generated through the sale of six-color Tesla T-shirts,
thousands of them. The Society strongly invites correspondents to participate in the
Tesla Bust Program either through donations or through the purchase of T-shirts.
You can reach Mr. Wagner by surfing the web, by e-mail iwwagner(a),concentric. net or
by contacting the Society directly.
William Terbo Trip to Sydney, Australia
Society Executive Secretary, William Terbo, was invited as a guest and to speak
at the St. Lazarus Serbian Orthodox Church 6 th Annual Ball held on August 31 st at the
Australian Technology Park, Sydney. Commemorating Nikola Tesla was the theme of
the Ball and Mr. Terbo, as one of the two closest living relatives of Tesla, was the
featured speaker. While Nikola Tesla holds a place of high honor among all elements of
world scientific, academic and cultural societies, his Serbian ethnicity earns him the
highest esteem among world Serbs.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
3
There is great interest in Tesla throughout Australia. Discussions have begun on
the manner of starting an affiliated Chapter of the Society serving all Australians. The
structure of the Chapter must meet the objectives and methods of this Society.
William Terbo Trip to Belgrade and Serbia
Mr. Terbo visited Belgrade from September 15 th through 19 th . The focus of the
Belgrade trip was to discuss the several areas of mutual support and assistance, planned
and in place, between the Society and the Nikola Tesla Museum. In honor of the
Museum’s 50 th Anniversary, Mr. and Mrs. Terbo placed a large floral display at the foot
of the pedestal on which is placed the golden sphere holding the ashes of Nikola Tesla.
Later, Mr. and Mrs. Terbo placed a large bouquet at the Belgrade Central Cemetery
memorial honoring Dr. Sava Kosanovic, nephew of Tesla, principal founder of the
Museum and cousin to Mr. Terbo.
While in Belgrade and elsewhere in Serbia, Mr. Terbo gave several media
interviews, discussed planning with Society European Correspondent and Executive
Board member, Mr. Momcilo Simic and visited with persons of interest to the Society.
Dan Mrkich European Research Trip
In September, Society Executive Board member Mr. Dan Mrkich traveled to
London, Prague, Budapest, Strasbourg and Paris researching his new book Tesla’s
European Years. Mr. Mrkich has completed Part Two The Family, Childhood and Youth.
Part Two covers the history of the area of Tesla’s birth from the 16 th Century to the
modern era, his family history, his young life and his several returns to the area from his
schooling, work and work in America. (Part One Education and Early Work is available
by order from the Society.) Tesla’s fame in Europe is substantially better recognized
than it is in North America. (A page from the Prague telephone directory shows 20 firms
using the name “Tesla.”)
A&E Network Video Presentation Recognizing Inventors
The Arts & Entertainment Television Networks premiered a Special one-hour
program The Top 15 Inventors of the 20 th Century on June 4 th . The “Top 15” were
selected and ranked through a poll of 250 journalists, inventors and academics as the
“most influential inventors of the last 100 years.” No list or ranking can satisfy everyone.
If the list were to exclude inventions patented before the 20 th Century, Thomas Edison
(ranked #1) might not have appeared at all. If the inventions were judged specifically on
their impact on the 20 th Century, it would be impossible to ignore Alexander Graham Bell
(not ranked). If inventors were measured by “patented” inventions, Henry Ford (#12)
and Tim Berners-Lee (#15) would not make the cut. If the ranking were based on the
work of a lifetime, Nikola Tesla would rank at or near the top. If the selection were
based only on 20 th Century patents, Tesla’s ranking (#7) is about right.
Czech Ministry of Education To Produce Nikola Tesla Video
The Czech Republic Ministry of Education has arranged to produce a short video
on the life of Tesla. The video is to be shown to Czech students at the High School level
to familiarize them with this giant of electrical science who received a substantial part of
his higher education in Prague. Just as in the United States, the Ministry had become
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
4
aware that very few young students know of Tesla’s fundamental contributions to modern
society through his seminal work on electricity and radio. Society Executive Secretary
William Terbo gave on-camera interviews and guided the Czech video crew to several
Manhattan Tesla sites. Society Executive Board member Dan Mrkich provided
assistance in scheduling, permits and visas and guided the crew to Niagara Falls sites on
both sides of the U.S./Canadian border. The Czech crew visited the Tesla Museum in
Belgrade in September. The program is scheduled for completion this winter.
SCI-FI Television Tesla Program
A one-hour segment of the series In Search Of... describing some elements of the
work of Nikola Tesla was completed in 2001. The In Search Of... series has moved
from the Fox Network to the SCI-FI Network. The first airing of a portion of the Tesla
segment The Tesla Death Ray appeared on Friday, October 4 th as a 15-minute part of a 4-
part olio to reintroduce the series. The contract production company who produced the
Tesla segment for Fox have a total of eight segments completed. Various Fill-length
segments are being aired each Friday. The Society will inform members when an airdate
for the full Tesla segment is scheduled.
Join the Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc., founded in 1979 and incorporated in 1980, is
the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous operation honoring and
perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor, Nikola
Tesla, the “Father of Alternating Current.”
The Society is a nonprofit, nonpolitical, all volunteer membership organization
operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the Internal Revenue Code. The Society does not
employ professional fundraisers. The Society accepts donations, honoraria and other
forms of support in meeting its objectives through support and participation in cultural
activities, as a source of archival information and as a media resource through lecture and
interview presentations. One hundred percent of funds raised are used in the pursuit of
Society Charter objectives.
We welcome membership at the following annual levels: Individual, $25
(Overseas, $40); Supporter, $100; Patron, $250; and Benefactor, $1,000. Member
participation at these levels is designed to not only cover direct membership costs, but to
ensure the continuation of a very cost-effective organization that reflects the members
respect for the memory and ideals of Nikola Tesla.
Tesla Memorial Society of New York
Unfortunately, a certain amount of confusion is likely to occur over the similarity
in the names of the Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. (the Society) and a new entity, the Tesla
Memorial Society of New York (TMSNY). There is no connection between the Society
and the TMSNY. The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. was founded in 1979 and
incorporated in 1980 and operates under Section 501 (c) (3) of the Internal Revenue
Code. The Society will cooperate with the TMSNY on projects that are serious,
appropriate, and well thought out and meet Society goals of honoring and perpetuating
the memory of Nikola Tesla in an effective and dignified manner.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
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Presentation to the Board of Directors of the Tesla Memorial Society on
May 6, 1990, by Daniel M. Dumych
Less than a mile down Buffalo Avenue from here, the Age of
Electricity was born. When William Birch Rankine and Paul Lincoln
closed the circuit breakers at 12:01 a.m., November 16, 1896, at the
Niagara Falls Power Company's power house, current flashed through the
transmission lines from Niagara Falls to Buffalo, where stepdown
transformers converted it for use by Buffalo's streetcars. Motormen
pushed forward the handles on their controllers, and the trolleys glided
into motion, beneficiaries of Niagara's rumbling power. And so, the
world was quietly and swiftly changed, irrevocably.
All facets of our modern-day lives are somehow linked with that
moment. If this science of electricity were somehow converted to a
religion, the powerhouse would be a place of worship, the power tower,
its icon.
Unfortunately, we are not so whimsical or poetic a culture, and on
the contrary, we need to consciously remind ourselves of the importance
of this earth-shaping development nearly a century ago. At least in
part to blame is the concept of obsolescence, an equating of the old
with the useless, a way of thinking that is deeply ingrained in our
culture. While on the one hand it with a certainty propelled our
economy forward, it also left a legacy of waste, and a disrespect for
the past.
Niagara Falls serves as an ideal example. The hotel in which we
now sit was in the early years of this century the site of a
meticulously manicured park maintained for the employees of the Shredded
Wheat Company. This facility was located across the street from here,
and if one is persistent, scattered yellow brick fragments remaining
from its demolition can still be found. This factory, at the time of
its completion in 1901, was a futuristic model of what a factory should
be. Its designers intended it to be a "Palace of Light", which indeed
it was, with its 822 large windows. It was air conditioned throughout,
and heat was regulated with thermostats. Female workers were provided
with free meals; males had to pay a mere ten cents. The facility also
2
provided 13 bathtubs, 13 shower baths, seven sponge baths and 104 sinks.
One must remember that this was done at a time when personal hygiene
norms were less exacting than ours. Likewise, the Shredded Wheat Plant
was the first factory known to have provided coffee breaks. On breaks,
employees were free to make use of the numerous lounges, attend a
lecture in the auditorium, or visit the company’s circulating library.
Now, all that the city has to offer as a reminder of these innovations
is an empty parking lot with grass growing through the cracked surface.
In the eyes of our culture, the factory, with the accumulation of
years, proportionally lost its worth. Granted that some facilities do
over the course of time lose the ability to be productive enough to
justify their continued operation, but our culture, in its relentless
pursuit of economic efficiency, has forgotten to pay homage to those
facilities, to those individuals, who created this world of ours. Only
by having artifacts from the past to serve as reminders can we focus our
thoughts to appreciate our electro-industrial roots.
The Adams Power Station is another lamentable example of our
ingratitude to the past. At the time of its completion in 1896, it was
the largest producer of alternating current in the world, and the
success of this project provided the impetus the make alternating
current the standard means of transmitting electricity the world over.
This is where it all started! And what remains now? Power Houses
Number One and Two were demolished during the summer and autumn of 1965.
Thankfully some local citizens of vision (especially when one considers
that this took place during the 1960's, the apex years of the disposable
society) had enough foresight to save the stonework of the entranceway
of Power House One and reconstruct it as a memorial arch on Goat Island.
The site of these two power houses which initiated a revolution is now
occupied by a sewage treatment plant. Where generators once whirled
unstoppably and banks of marble-paneled circuit breakers stood are now
settling pools for sewage. Its mighty hydraulic tunnel, once the
largest of its kind in the world, that carried the power house tailrace
under the city for nearly a mile and a half now carries processed sewage
to the lower river. Rather than leave floral wreaths as a tribute to
this historic site, we pour raw sewage on it! Is this the reverence
that we have for the past? Has our utilitarian drive for efficiency
3
killed something deep inside of us? Is something only of worth to us if
it can turn a profit? One can't help but wonder if the callous
disregard for our common past hasn't played a large part in creating the
emptiness that the citizens of the world have been feeling for the past
two decades, a void that even our shopping centers, televisions, and
credit cards cannot fill.
An opportunity to preserve a significant part of the past is still
available to western New Yorkers, if not to anyone else who respects the
i?ei& played by Niagara Falls in the development of electricity's role in
our lives. The sole remaining building of the Adams Power Complex, the
Transformer Building, still provides us with the opportunity to make
amends for our disregard of the past. By converting the Transformer
Building into a museum, we can preserve a building of immense historical
importance and chronical power development in the Niagara Frontier
during the years that this area played a leading world role. This
would create an opportunity to collect, preserve, and display relevant
artifacts before they are lost forever. It would provide us with a
living memory of our past, a museum in one of the buildings that played
an actual part in making history.
The building is presently off-limits to the public and owned by
the Niagara-Mohawk Power Corporation. Two years ago I had. the good luck
of being able to walk through the building. It is now being used as a
storage building for grass-cutting equipment, ceramic pipes, line
insulators and other such things. Although the building presently has a
less than noble use, it is in very good condition, inside and out.
Apparently, since it is still in use, it is maintained regularly.
Sadly, none of the original electrical equipment remains. I was told
that the transformers were sold to a South American country several
years ago, where they are still being used. However, the original
overhead crane is still in place. A patent date from 1888 can be seen
on it. The size and configuration of the interior make it ideal for
being laid out into a museum.
The location of the Transformer Building may prove to be ideal. A
large shopping mall is planned for construction north of Buffalo Avenue,
and if it should go up, the Transformer Building would find itself in a
heavily trafficked area and thus, one would hope, become a place much
visited by both the interested and the idly curious. As one can see on
the map I have handed out, it would be a simple matter to link the
\ #
walkway along the river with the Transformer Building, thus connecting
one of Niagara Falls’ wonders with its other.
If the Transformer Building does become a museum, it would not be
the first such facility that has existed in the area. From 1967 to
1975, the Sir Adam Beck Generating Station No. 1 was home to the Hydro
Hall of Memory. Its purpose was to trace the growth of electricity as
a force in our lives, and among its displays were early lamps and
appliances such as mixers, irons, and toasters, articles which at the
time of their manufacture were novelties, in contrast to way in which
they are regarded now. Also on exhibit was Canada's first electric
motor, which was denounced by a clergyman at the time of its invention
as an instrument of the devil, since it would lead to excessive leisure
time. A display which tells of the first long-distance transmission of
electricity from Niagara Falls to Buffalo describes it as being the
beginning of the second industrial revolution. Oddly enough, this
museum was never publicized or seen as an attraction in itself, and a
drop in attendance caused it to be closed in 1975.
In the summer of 1982, the Sandford Fleming Engineerium was opened
in the de-commissioned power house of the Toronto Power Plant, also
known as the Electrical Development Company. It failed to re-open the
following year because of a lack of funding, and, as in the case of the
Hydro Hall of Memory, was minimally publicized. Should the Transformer
Building eventually become a power museum, it must avoid the mistake of
its two Canadian sisters and make the public aware of its existence.
The two elements that will determine the existence of a museum in
the Adams Transformer Building are a) use or possession of the building,
and b) funding. It is conceivable that Niagara Mohawk might, as a
public relations gesture, either donate or allow unrestricted use of the
Transformer Building. If such is not the case, one can hope that they
may consider selling it at a "bargain" price. As for funding, it is the
opinion of this speaker that the corporations who played a vital role in
the funding of the original Niagara Falls Power Company, i.e., the
Westinghouse Corporation, General Electric, and Bi@k of Morgan be
approached for dedicated funding. Since the museum should also describe
5
the role of the Schoellkopf Power Stations, it would be wise to also
approach the Schoellkopf family for advice.
The only right thing for us to do is to pursue establishing a
power museum in the Adams Station Transformer Building, and should we
fail at that, we must not allow it to fall into disrepair or worse yet,
be demolished. We must be its guardians. We should request that the
state erect a marker in front of it which explains its historic role.
The Transformer Building is all that is left of the history-making Adams
Power Station, and it must be preserved in its present form for the
coming years, when again the museum concept can be revived. That is the
very least that we MUST do. To neglect that duty would be a crime
against history and against the future.
A proposal presented by Daniel M. lumych to the Board of Directors of the Tesla Memorial
Society on Sunday, May 6, 1990, to link the Niagara Reservation with the former Adams
Transformer Building by means of continuing the river walkway across the remaining portion
of the Niagara Falls Power Company intake canal by a bridge, and from that point extending
it northeast under the Robert Moses Parkway overpass at the same site, past the Niagara
Mohawk switchyards, and on to the former Transformer Building itself.
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Time Catches Up With Tesla’s Eccentric Genius
Continued From Page 1$
The Inventor enjoys
some light reading
while a Tesla coil shoots
out millions of volts
around him. Lightning
bolts from his labora¬
tory in Colorado, below,
Ut up the night sky for
miles around.
of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and
soon showed a talent for invention
and tinkering. In 1884, he took a ship
to New York and immediately went to
work for Thomas Alva Edison. But
the two quickly parted ways after a
dispute over an invention.
Going into business for himself,
Tesla soon developed the basis for the
alternating-current system in world¬
wide use today. He realized that di¬
rect current can be transported over
wires for only a few miles, whereas
high-voltage alternating current can
go on almost forever without sustain¬
ing great losses of power. To make
the new system practical, he invented
and patented a variety of alternating-
current generators, transformers and
motors.
Edison backed direct current as the
perfect electrical source of the future,
and the two men fought a heated bat¬
tle over the best system. It went down
in science history as the “war of the
currents” — a contest Tesla won.
Conceived Futuristic Devices
So much for Tesla’s conventional
history. The Centennial Committee
says he went on to do much more than
just spark the age of electricity —en¬
visioning and inventing a dazzling
array of futuristic devices.
“All the literature says Marconi in¬
vented the radio,” Mr. Grotz said in
an interview. “But long before Mar¬
coni had a patent, Tesla was demon¬
strating a radio-controlled model
boat and talking about transmitting
electrical power across the Atlantic.
Compare that to Marconi’s S-O-S."
Indeed, in 1943 the Justices of the
Supreme Court of the United States
overturned Marconi’s patent because
they found it had been preceded by
Tesla’s practical achievements in
radio transmission.
Another example is radar, which
employs short wavelength radio sig¬
nals that can be reflected back from
solid objects. As early as 1900, mem¬
bers of the centennial committee
note, Tesla suggested that these
wavelengths could be used for locat¬
ing ships at sea.
Many of the 27 speakers at the
Tesla symposium, held .his month at
The Colorado College in Colorado
Springs, put their emphasis on Tes¬
la’s most spectacular experiments of
all, which occurred at a laboratory
not far from the symposium site.
There, at the turn of the century,
Tesla built enormous coils that gener¬
ated 10 million to 12 million volts of
electricity and sent bolts of artificial
lightning flashing 135 feet through the
air, a feat that has never been
equaled.
Work Shrouded in Mystery
pad tors and a large metered control
panel.
In Colorado Tesla hit upon what he
thought was a revolutionary way to
send electricity through the air. “Not
only was it practicable to send tele¬
graphic messages to any distance
without wires,” he wrote of the in¬
sight, “but also to impress upon the
entire globe the faint modulations of
the human voice, far more still, to
transmit power, in unlimited
amounts, to any terrestrial distance
and almost without any loss. ”
Financed by J. P. Morgan
With the financial backing of J. P.
Morgan, Tesla embarked upon a plan
to commercialize the discovery,
building a 200-foot tower at S ho reham
on Long Island. By 1905, however,
Morgan had abandoned the project
and the tower was never completed.
Tesla, especially in later years,
was a man of extraordinary idiosyn¬
crasies and boastful declarations that
sometimes sent his science peers into
a rage. His ideas for power transmis¬
sion through air were dismissed by
many as pure fantasy.
With a pocket-size vibrator, he once
told reporters, he could generate
resonant tremors that would split the
earth in two. He gave its resonant fre¬
quency as one hour and 49 minutes.
Whatever the plausibility of his earth¬
splitting scheme, the rather precise
estimate of the earth’s frequency
turned out to be close to the mark, as
was demonstrated during the great
Chilean earthquake of 1960, when geo¬
physicists were able to measure the
time it took waves to travel back and
forth through the Earth.
At the symposium some of Tesla’s
advocates seemed to try to outdo the
master's knack for hyperbole as they
conjured visions of death rays and
futuristic weapons. In a paper enti¬
tled “Star Wars Now!” Thomas E.
Bearden, a retired nuclear engineer
and Army war games analyst, noted
what he said were a number of de¬
signs for making weapons based on
Tesla’s more exotic ideas. The hypo¬
thetical devices included what he
termed a Tesla howitzer and a Tesla
shield that could allegedly stop Soviet
missiles.
Proposed Death Rays
Tesla suggested in 1940 that the
United States military could build a
system of death rays that would melt
enemy airplanes at a distance of 250
miles. The War Department looked
into the idea and said politely, no
thanks.
“With Tesla you’re always going to
get the fringe,” said Robert K. Golka,
a physicist who spoke at the symposi¬
um. “It’s hard to tell what is real and
what is not. Tesla will always attract
guys with ideas about perpetual mo¬
tion.”
the New York Public Library and
feed his friends, the pigeons. Late in
life he announced that he had re¬
ceived signals from distant planets, a
claim that was greeted with some
skepticism.
Attracts Following of Fanatics
Waidemar B. Kaempffert, a sci¬
ence editor of The New York Times in
the first half of the century, once de¬
scribed Tesla as “an intellectual boa
constrictor” and a “medieval practi¬
tioner of black arts.”
Tesla’s closest living relative, Mr.
Terbo, says that four basic types of
people are attracted to Tesla — seri¬
ous scientists, Yugoslavs proud of his
achievements, pseudoscientists who
pursue some of his wackier ideas and
cultists who worship him as an extra¬
terrestrial.
“There are religious fanatics in
Pasadena who say he came down on a
space ship from Venus,” said Dr.
Terbo, adding, “It’s no small group.”
Although Tesla is only belatedly
being recognized for the wide-ranging
brilliance of his achievements, one
testimonial to his genius did come in
1917 from B. A. Behrend, an engineer
who had an inkling of the mark Tesia
would make on Western civilization.
“Were we to eliminate from our in¬
dustrial world the results of his
work,” he told a banquet in Tesla’s
honor, “the wheels of industry would
cease to turn, our electric cars and
trains would stop, our towns would be
dark, our mills would be dead and
idle. His name marks an epoch in the
advance of electrical science. From
his work has sprung a revolution."
To this day, scientists debate what Indeed, Tesla himself was some-
Tesla accomplished in 1 Colorado, for thing of a character, according to
much of the work was shrouded in Margaret Cheney, whose book,
mystery Dr. Robert W. Bass, an “Tesla, Man Out of Time,” details
electrical engineer with Litton Indus- some of the eccentricities At the
at me symposium that one height of his fame, while eating din-
of Tesla s mere controversial claims ner in the Palm Room of the Waldorf-
— that he had created ball lightning Astoria Hotel, he would polish the al-
— was probably true and he cited con- ready sparkling sliver and crystal
temporary theories of physics to ex- using exactly 18 napkins. He had a
plain how Tesla could reproduce such phobia about germs and a love of
a rare natural phenomonon. numbers divisible by three.
Tesla’s laboratory in Colorado The New York Times reported in a
Springs was a bam-like structure that front-page article in 1915 that Tesla
sat atop a hill on the prairie and was was to share that year's Nobel Prize
crowned by an 80-foot tower and be- in physics with Edison. But he never
yond that a 122-foot mast. The tall got the award. One biographer said
fence surrounding it carried signs that Tesla had refused to share it with
reading: “Keep Out — Great Dan- his old rival. Another version has it
ger.” The claps of thunder from his that Tesla rejected the prize because
bolts of artificial lightning could be it had been given in 1909 to Marconi,
heard for miles. After the death of his mother, Tesla
According to Charles Wright, a re- became increasingly eccentric and
tired engineer formerly with the Pub- withdrawn. He vigorously disagreed
lie Service Company of Colorado, the with theories put forward by great
laboratory was filled with a host of in- scientists of his day including James
ventions including high-voltage trans- Clerk Maxwell and Albert Einstein,
formers, dynamos, coils, capacitor- He never married. Nearly every day
discharge devices, oil-insulated ca- he would go to Bryant Park behind
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Early French print of
Niagara Falls dated 1697.
Map of the river and falls
prepared in 1819 by
commisssioners fixing the
international boundary line.
As American civilization unfolded,
Niagara Falls proved to occupy a
strategic position on major land and
water trade routes. Its attraction as a
center of commerce and a site for :
harnessing water power grew by
leaps and bounds.
The Industrial Revolution gathered
force, and in 1841 the earliest
calculation of the power of Niagara
Falls was made. The flow was figured
at 374,000 cubic feet per second.
Awesome Power
Stunning Natural Beauty
Niagara! Perhaps no other river on
Earth is as recognized for its awesome
power and breathtaking beauty.
At a height of 160 feet, Niagara Falls
was capable of imparting a total of
6,800,000 horsepower, of which two
thirds - or more than 4,500,000
horsepower - could effectively be
captured through water wheels.
In 1604, Samuel de Champlain
recorded the first western reference to
Niagara Falls, repeating what Native
Americans along the St. Lawrence
told him about the river. He never
actually saw the falls, however. In
1610, Etienne Brule, a member of
Champlain's crew, was probably the
first European to behold Niagara Falls.
The Falls' location, majestic splendor
and staggering power were a magnet
for tourists and developers the world
over. Niagara Falls was and still is
recognized as one of the “Wonders
of the World."
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
Plaque Honoring Electrical Genius, Nikola Tesla, Dedicated
at Manhattan’s Hotel New Yorker
A commemorative plaque honoring the great inventor and electrical genius, Nikola Tesla,
was unveiled at the Hotel New Yorker Ramada on Tuesday, July 10, 2001. The Tesla
Memorial Society, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the
Hotel New Yorker hosted the ceremony.
Known as the “Father of Alternating Current,” Nikola Tesla, son of a Serbian Orthodox
priest, was born on July 10, 1856 in the Austro-Hungarian Military Frontier Province
town of Smiljan in what is now Croatia. After his higher education in Science and with
practical electrical design experience, Edison interests in Paris recognized his talent and
invited him to America in 1884 to work directly for Edison. They soon parted ways
when Edison found no use for Tesla’s seminal work on Alternating Current (AC) power.
Tesla’s 1888 speech to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (predecessor of the
IEEE) on his innovations in AC power brought him to the attention of George
Westinghouse. Westinghouse adopted Tesla technology, and eventually persuaded the
U.S. power industry to replace the DC system, championed by Edison, with Tesla’s
polyphase AC system. With the 1896 completion of the Niagara Falls AC power
generation and transmission system, AC became the world electrical standard.
Among Nikola Tesla’s 700 patents was fundamental work in radio, fluorescent light,
remote control, high voltage and high frequency currents. Every aspect of electrical and
radio technology owes a debt to Tesla’s fertile imagination. The International Unit of
magnetic flux density is the “tesla.”
Nikola Tesla, a Manhattan resident for nearly 60 years, lived at the Hotel New Yorker
from 1934 to January 7, 1943. The plaque had been created in 1976 by the Yugoslav
American Bicentennial Commission to commemorate his residence there. The plaque
was moved in 1989 to an honored position in the United Engineering Building, the
international headquarters of the IEEE, adjacent to the United Nations. When that
building was recently razed the plaque was returned to its original intended location.
The dedication ceremony was held on the 34 th Street exterior of the Hotel New Yorker,
just west of 8 th Avenue. Priests from New York metropolitan area Serbian Orthodox
Churches performed the blessing to open the ceremony. The plaque was unveiled by
former Congressperson, Helen Delich Bentley, and William H. Terbo, grandnephew of
Tesla and Chairman of the Tesla Memorial Society. Remarks were offered by Bentley,
Terbo and other honored guests.
WHT/tmslt(3)
NIKOLA TESLA PLAQUE
Dedication, Tuesday, July 10, 2001
Hotel New Yorker Ramada, Manhattan
Remarks By
William H. Terbo.
Executive Secretary, Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
It has been a long trip, but this Plaque honoring the great electrical genius and humanist,
Nikola Tesla, is now installed where it was first intended, his residence for the final ten
years of his life - the Hotel New Yorker.
In these few moments, I would like to touch on two items of the story of Nikola Tesla
and the Hotel New Yorker: my visit with him in him suite, and a brief history of the
Plaque.
First, the visit. How is it that a young boy, myself, should have the opportunity to be
ushered into the presence of such a famous and distinguished elderly man as Nikola
Tesla. Simple. It was just a family matter. My grandmother was Tesla’s sister,
Angelina, and my father, Nikola Trbojevich (socially, Nicholas Terbo), was Tesla’s
nephew. (There was a special relationship between Tesla and my father in addition to the
family connection. My father was the only other technically educated person in the
extended family - the educational tradition was to become clerics in the Serbian Orthodox
Church as Tesla’s father, my grandfather and my father’s eldest brother were. And my
father was the only other family member to come to America. My father was 30 years
junior to Tesla, also came to the U.S. at age 28, and died 30 years after Tesla.)
It was the 1930’s tradition of our family to spend the summers at the New Jersey shore.
The routine was for father, mother, my brother and I to motor from Detroit to the Cape
May or Asbury Park. Father would stay for a week or two before returning to Detroit
where he maintained offices as an inventor and consulting engineer. At the end of the
summer, mother and I (my brother passed in 1937 at age 13) would return by train with a
stopover of a week or so in either Washington or New York.
This particular year, probably 1938 or 1940 (kids are not so time specific) my mother and
I were staying at the Taft Hotel with plans that day (I thought) to visit Radio City Music
Hall. Imagine my surprise when, on the way to Radio City, my mother said “let’s go see
Uncle Nikola first.” I was less than enthusiastic because Radio City seemed much more
exciting.
Mother and I went to his Hotel New Yorker room Number 3327, a two-room Suite, in
mid morning. He was waiting for us. He addressed my mother and then turned to me,
kissing and hugging me in greeting. (As an All-American boy, I was much more
comfortable with just shaking hands). Besides saying “Hello” or some such, I seemed to
be stmck dumb. I may have, but I don’t recall saying another word. Tesla was very tall
and very old, while I was so small. Uncle Nikola and my mother talked for some time on
family matters, perhaps on my brother’s recent death, and we left to Radio City.
On reflection in recent years, I’ve wondered about Tesla’s famous idiosyncrasy
concerning a phobia of germs. His habit of wiping silverware and shaking hands most
reluctantly were items of constant press coverage. Hugging, kissing and patting the head
of a ten-year-old boy seemed out of character. Perhaps this idiosyncrasy was merely an
affectation used to tease the press.
Now, the Plaque. The Yugoslav-American Bicentennial Committee conducted many
cultural events in connection with America’s 200 hundredth birthday celebration
including technical symposia and folk art and dance festivals. The Plaque was their gift
intended for installation here at the Hotel on January 7, 1977, exactly 34 years after his
passing. (You may remember that almost every country in the world gave a “birthday”
gift to America in 1976. The official gift of the Yugoslav Government was the statue of
Nikola Tesla that was installed overlooking Niagara Falls.)
For reasons that are not necessary to detail here, that installation did not take place in
1977. After the Bicentennial Committee concluded its work, the Plaque languished in the
offices of the Yugoslav Counsel General until 1989. Through the fortuitous intervention
of Dr. Milan Bulajic, a doctor of international law, Director of the Yugoslav Nikola Tesla
Fund, a former Yugoslav Counsel General at New York - and having some specific
business with the Executive Director of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE), Mr. Eric Herz - proposed placing the Plaque at the United
Engineering Center adjacent to United Nations Headquarters. The Center was the
International Headquarters of the IEEE as well as several other Technical organizations.
This suggestion met with success and immediate action. Nikola Tesla holds a special
place in the regard of the IEEE; He is one of twelve “apostles” of electric technology
honored by the IEEE, joining such luminaries as Michael Faraday, Samuel F. B. Morse,
Lord Kelvin, Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell.
The Plaque was installed on the wall of the United Engineering Center Lobby Honor
Court directly opposite a similar plaque honoring Alfred Nobel, the philanthropist who
provided the initial funding for the construction of the Center. There it remained until
redevelopment (Donald Trump style) caused the razing of the Center last year. The IEEE
became custodian of the Plaque until it could be returned to its original intended location.
On behalf of the family of Nikola Tesla and the Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. I want to
thank all those who have been involved supporting this particular honor for one of the
great men of technology. A man who may have had the greatest impact on transforming
human society into what we may call the “modern” age. I want to thank the Bicentennial
Committee, Dr. Milan Bulajic, Mr. Eric Herz and the IEEE current General Manager
Daniel J. Senese, the Hotel New Yorker and General Manager Mr. Barry S. Mann for
supporting this event.
Nikola Tesla’s discoveries and inventions in electricity and radio are well known. His
genius opened a path to a new world. He was a true pioneer. Many years ago an early
American writer captured the thought this way:
“Genius is the spirit of discovery. It gives wings to thought. It is always in
advance of its time - a pioneer for the generations which it precedes.”
Thank you.
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary and Chairman of the Executive Board
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Copyright 2001
WHT/tmsly(2)
THE TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
THE HOTEL NEW YORKER
The Hotel New Yorker holds a special place in the biography of the famous electrical
genius and inventor, Nikola Tesla, being his home from 1934 until his death on January
7 th , 1943. As a single man and completely absorbed in his hundreds of inventions, he had
little time to devote to the maintenance of a conventional household. He chose instead to
live in a succession of luxury hotels. Because of his friendship and association with the
Astor family, he lived for many years (1900-1919) in the old Waldorf-Astoria, now the
site of the Empire State Building. In subsequent years he lived in the Hotel St. Regis, the
Marguery, the Pennsylvania, the Governor Clinton and finally the New Yorker (1).
His 700 patents include the seminal inventions of the modern system of alternating
current production, transmission and utilization; the basics of radio; and the high
frequency Tesla Coil. These accomplishments made Nikola Tesla perhaps the youngest
and greatest of that special group of independent inventors who were most productive
around the turn of the Twentieth Century. Looking back after many decades on a man
whose personality of culture, science and altruism makes him seem almost alien in the
materialism of today. This has caused some people to attribute powers and drama to his
life and his work that are not always well founded.
Among the stories associated with Nikola Tesla is that he died in poverty in 1943. While
he did not retain the wealth and income that was his situation in previous years, he lived
in a two-room suite in one of the most luxurious hotels in Manhattan, the Hotel New
Yorker. To adequately position the New Yorker among the leading hotels of Manhattan
during the years Tesla called it his home, it is appropriate to review some of the details of
its construction and amenities (2).
The Hotel New Yorker opened for guests on January 30, 1930. With 2,500 guest rooms
and 43 stories, it was the largest and tallest hotel in New York. At $22,500,000, it was
the most costly hotel construction to that date. The hotel was self-sufficient in all aspects
of electrical power, heating, cooling and ventilation for up to 3,500 hotel guests and up to
30,000 visitors daily. These facilities were located in four sub-basements as well as in
several above ground areas. A staff of 2,000 provided a high level of guest, dining and
banquet services.
Construction started in June of 1928, after the removal of obsolete structures on a plot of
197.5 by 175 feet on the west side of 8 th Avenue between 34 th and 35 th Streets. The
completed structure contained 10,400,000 cubic feet of enclosed space above ground and
2,000,000 cubic feet below ground. A tunnel connected the Hotel with nearby
Pennsylvania Station. There was subterranean access to the New York subway system.
A bank and several other commercial businesses were provided space and facilities in the
public areas of the Hotel.
Air conditioning was provided to the main dining room, grill room, tearoom, banquet
hall, main ballroom and eight private dining rooms by an odorless (carbon dioxide)
refrigeration system of 166 tons capacity. Twelve all-automatic (but attended) main
passenger elevators were provided, six local to the 19 th floor and six express to the 20 th to
39 th floor. Six service elevators operated, three from the 3 rd basement to the roof (44 th
floor) and three from the 3 rd basement to the 39 th floor. There were also two freight
elevators (4 th basement to 3 rd floor); one large ballroom elevator (1 st to 3 rd floor); one
large subway elevator (2 nd basement to 2 nd floor); and an elevator for the bank (1 st
basement to the 2 nd floor). Four Hotel and one bank dumbwaiters were also provided.
Every guest room had a telephone. The Hotel maintained one of the largest private
telephone exchanges to provide service, including a 24-position switchboard on the 39 th
floor. Every guest room had a (four program channel) radio. Tap ice water was available
in every guest room in addition to regular hot and cold running water. Every guest floor
had a room clerk station connected to the lobby by telephone, telautograph and pneumatic
tube systems. (The Hotel maintained a 60-station pneumatic tube system for
interdepartmental messaging.)
Electric power was provided by four steam-driven engines direct connected to three 600-
kw and one 400-kw DC generators and one 535-hp diesel engine direct connected to a
375-kw DC generator. The 2,575-kw capacity was sufficient not only to provide 115 volt
light and 230 volt power for all Hotel uses, including 200 motors used for other Hotel
services, but to provide service to all adjoining buildings. (Normal usage was for two
units running and two units plus the diesel unit in reserve.) The Hotel did not convert to
Alternating Current until about 1965.
As the comfort and convenience of guests was paramount in the running of a luxury
hotel, all service systems and facilities tended to be designed with large safety margins
for the original 1930 Hotel New Yorker. This over-design is certainly a significant factor
in the continuing popularity of the current Hotel New Yorker, 71 years young.
William H. Terbo Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
Executive Secretary 21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
(1) Tesla residence information by Leland I. Anderson, copyright 1990.
(2) Hotel New Yorker construction and service systems information by POWER
magazine, November 26, 1929 issue, copyright 1929.
Special thanks to Mr. Barry S. Mann, General Manager, and Mr. Joseph Kinney, Chief
Engineer, New Yorker Hotel Management Company, Inc.
November, 2001
Copyright 2001, William H. Terbo
WHT/tmsmt(2)
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
TESLA: MASTER OF LIGHTNING 40,000 in print
By Margaret Cheney & Robert Uth
Tesla: Master of Lightning, the 1999 companion book of the 2000/2001 PBS Television
Special of the same title, is the most comprehensive illustrated biography of the great
electrical genius, Nikola Tesla, yet produced. The authors are well-known biographer
and Society Executive Board member Margaret Cheney and documentary producer,
director and writer Robert Uth. In its third printing, the attractively priced 184-page,
9x1114 inch, hard cover book contains over 225 photos, drawings and illustrations, with
authoritatively researched and dated captions. The text provides a thorough and skillful
overview of Tesla’s life with many pertinent sidebars with details and anecdotes. Tesla:
Master of Lightning contains a fully detailed list of References, Bibliography and Index
and is available at bookstores (ISBN 1-5866-3187-X or 0-7607-1005-8).
TESLA: MAN OUT OF TIME 200,000 in print
By Margaret Cheney
Margaret Cheney’s 1981 biography Tesla: Man Out of Time accurately anticipated the
resurgence of interest in Nikola Tesla, the man and his place in history. The many
previous Tesla biographies dealt more with the drama, mystery, romance, controversy or
frustration of his remarkable life rather than the importance and societal impact of his
discoveries and inventions. In Tesla: Man Out of Time Ms. Cheney combined all of
those elements into an excellent “read” that nevertheless accurately researched the
technical detail necessary to position Tesla in the context of modern society.
The staying power of Tesla: Man Out of Time has been impressive. The original 1981
hard cover edition was followed by a soft cover edition in 1983. A second hard cover
edition was published in 1993. Two additional soft cover editions were published in
1998 and 2001. The cumulative volume effect of multiple printings has pushed Tesla:
Man Out of Time into the industry accepted standard of a “best seller.” Hard cover
editions are hard to find but various soft cover editions are available at bookstores.
Tesla: Man Out of Time has been translated into several foreign languages including
German, French and Japanese. A Korean language version is currently in process. This
is another indicator of the renewed worldwide interest in Nikola Tesla
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc., founded in 1979 and incorporated in 1980, is the
oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous operation honoring and
perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor, Nikola
Tesla, the “Father of Alternating Current. ” The Society is a nonprofit, nonpolitical, all
volunteer membership organization operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the Internal
Revenue Code. August 2002 TMSoa2
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H isidifficult to think of a scientist-
doling and edgmati^than Nikola *!
T^la£ He was not universally ad-
miredi Waldemar Kaempffert, a for¬
mfeed ence editor of this newspaper,
described him as “an intellectual boa
£ coSstfictor,” a “medieval practi-
: tioner of black arts... as vague as an
oriental mystic.”
Yet Tesla is widely credited with in-
f*jnj$tiog the technology of alternating
S^wfeat systems that now dominate
electrical technology. He won finan-'
cial backing from such figures as J. P.
."Morgan.
Sq far, no professional historian
• science and technology has sought to
% document Tesla’s turbulent life, sepa¬
rating- the facts from the grandiose
? /claims made on his behalf, particu¬
larly by some Tesla admirers who
f^sharahis Croatian origins. He has
h®aa credited with outshining Edison
*' as an inventor and being the true dis-
cqyerer of vacuum tubes and of wire¬
less telegraphy — accomplishments
usually credited to others.
Margaret Cheney, a California
writer and journalist, became inter¬
ested, in Tesla’s story in the 1950’s and
joiqed in formation of the Tesla Soci¬
ety, since disbanded, to help celebrate
the centennial of his birth in 1856. In
7 preparing this book she has delved
into, a rich collection of source ma-
“ tarial and, in spite of her obvious ad-
- miration for her subject, she spells out
the extraordinary idiosyncracies and
7 boastful declarations that infuriated
i: contemporary scientists.
: With a pocket-size vibrator, he told
(rgpojters, he could generate resonant
; tremors that would collapse such
f large structures as the Empire State
Building and Ok Brooklyn Bridge. He
; said be could split the earth “as a
: would split an apple” and gave
. resonant frequency as one hour an
Pl -Ji?batever4he basis for
precise estimate, he was not very far
off the true resonance period, as was
’ demonstrated by the great Chilean
earthquake of 1960. The book is in-
“ ■Ifprmative and highly ( entertaining,
bat.it still remains for a'science histo-
, ria» to place Tesla in his rightful place
among the geniuses of the past cen-
tury,. * Walter Sullivan
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
(732) 396-8852
WILLIAM H. TERBO
Executive Secretary
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
!:, y . ;r \ ; - WJdeWgridHwa; Ybjo«1»v Press and Cultund Cantor
The inventor Nikola Tesla on his 78th birthday in 1SS4 and as a yc-ung man.
TESLA: MASTER OF LIGHTNING
PREVIEW SHOWING AND RECEPTION - TUESDAY, DECEMBER 5, 2000
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, WASHINGTON, D C.
The National Academy of Sciences in Washington hosted a reception and preview
showing of the new PBS Special Tesla: Master of Lightning, produced and directed by
Robert Uth of New Voyage Communications. The 90-minute video production is a
dramatic multimedia documentary of the prolific Serbian-American inventor and
visionary, Nikola Tesla (1856-1943). His many patents form the basis of the modern
Alternating Current power generating, transmission and utilization system as well as the
fundamentals of radio and television transmission. (PBS network broadcast feed of the
production occurred at 10:00 pm, Tuesday, December 12, with the initial public viewing
throughout the PBS network at that time or at times convenient to local markets.)
The Academy program began at 6:00 pm with an hors d’oeuvre and cocktail reception in
the rotunda area of the Academy. Over 200 guests were treated to demonstrations of
working models of an early Tesla Coil and other equipment used in the Master of
Lightning production. At 7:00 pm, the guests adjourned to the Academy auditorium for
the balance of the program.
Dr. William Wulf, President of the National Academy of Engineering, as host for the
Academy, spoke briefly in welcome and to recall for the audience of the importance of
Tesla’s scientific and engineering contributions to modern society.
Robert Uth spoke next to describe the many years of research, and the development of the
production from original concept to realization. He recognized Phylis Geller, Executive
Producer and co-writer, and other members of the New Voyage team with whom the
documentary was made.
Molly Hughes of Tessco Technologies, Inc., which hosted the reception, spoke of the
elements of Tesla’s radio technology so fundamental to products developed by Tessco.
William Terbo, Executive Secretary of the Tesla Memorial Society and grandnephew of
Nikola Tesla, expressed his appreciation for the production for the Society and the
family. He also acknowledged the impact this PBS Special will have on increasing
public awareness as to Tesla’s legacy in creating the modern industrial society.
Dr, Bernard Finn, Curator of Electrical Collections, Smithsonian Institution’s National
Museum of American History, spoke of Nikola Tesla’s prominence in the golden age of
independent inventors.
The preview of Tesla: Master of Lightning followed at 7:30. Master of Lightning is the
first network documentary to be made about Nikola Tesla. It is scientifically and
historically accurate, as well as entertaining. Much of the story is told in Tesla’s own
words (performed by prominent actor, Stacy Keach) from his autobiographical and
scientific writings. Science Advisor is Leland Anderson, prominent writer on Tesla
technology and leading Tesla historian. The PBS Special is supported by a companion
book and website,
Extensive additional information on Tesla’s life and inventions is available on the
website: www.pbs.org/tesla
The companion book Tesla: Master of Lightning by Margaret Cheney and Robert Uth,
is published by Barnes & Noble Books.
Historical Note:
The National Academy of Sciences is one of the most prestigious venues in
Washington. On November 20 th 1981, the Society hosted a reception and program at the
Academy celebrating the 125 th Anniversary of Nikola Tesla’s birth. Event arrangements
and invitations were managed by Society Washington Liaison, Congressman, the late
John Blatnik. Over 250 attended the program including many members of Congress,
governmental and diplomatic notables and the press. Individuals and organizations
participating as program speakers included the President of the IEEE, the Power
Engineering Society, the Ambassador of Yugoslavia, Society Executive Secretary, the
late Nicholas Kosanovich, and Honorary Chairman, William Terbo, grandnephew of
Tesla. A showing of the movie The Secret of Nikola Tesla, starring Orson Welles,
concluded the event.
For more information: www.teslamemorialsocietv.com or ,org
and www. newvovagepublishing. com
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
WHT/tmskt
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076, USA
William H. Terbo Maria Godfors
Executive Secretary Treasurer
TO: RADIO TELEVISION OF SERBIA
The Tesla Memorial Society wishes to congratulate Radio
Television of Serbia and all the people of Yugoslavia on the
important events of this October: the 75th Anniversary of
Radio Belgrade; the 50th Anniversary of Radio Novi Sad,
memorialized by the installation of a bust of Nikola Tesla
at Radio Novi Sad Headquarters; and, the Yugoslav Day of the
Inventors, dedicated to the greatest of inventors, Nikola
Tesla.
Until Nikola Tesla, theories in radio were the province of
physicists such as Faraday, Maxwell and Hertz. It was
Tesla, both a physicist AND an engineer, who turned those
theories into practice. He was the first to announce the
possibility of transmitting intelligent messages without
wires, who devised the antenna/ground system, who invented
the use of tuned circuits at both transmitter and receiver,
who conceived of resonant frequency tuning and who created
the radio frequency generator. The result of this burst of
genius is radio as we know it today.
The Tesla Memorial Society is the oldest U.S. based
organization in continuous operation honoring the memory and
ideals of the great electrical scientist, Nikola Tesla. It
is our pleasure to cooperate with people of all walks of
life who join with us in recognizing the unparalleled
contributions of this singular man.
On behalf of the Tesla Memorial Society, its Executive Board
and Membership, we send our most sincere regards to all who
have participated in these events and to Serbians, wherever
they may live, who will forever recognize the gifts bestowed
on the entire world by one of their own, Nikola Tesla.
William H. Terbo, Chairman of the Executive Board
October, 1999
&£?®22
■s
Nikola Tesla
and the famous "Tower of
Light" from the 1893
Chicago World's Fair.
Thomas Edison, and his invention of
the electric lamp , drove pioneers like
Nikola Tesla to develop reliable and
economical means of transmitting
power over long distances.
Intersection of a wheel-
pit discharge from the
Adams Station into the
24-foot-high main
tailrace tunnel.
W?3Sm
The construction of Adams
Station called for enormous
turbines - the largest the
world had ever seen.
mm 11
PHIpIIHI
Great Risk-
Great Reward
In 1883, Thomas Evershed, an Orders went out for the station's giant
engineer for the Erie Canal, suggested turbines - larger than the world had
building a gigantic tunnel to tame the ever seen,
power of Niagara Falls. The mile-long
tunnel would run under the village of By April 1895, the first hydroelectric
Niagara Falls. It was to be the unit at the Adams Station was tested
greatest engineering work of its kind. successfully. In 1896, Edison's
General Electric Company completed
In 1889, a group of New York construction of a 10,000 volt
bankers agreed to put up the money transmission line stretching 26 miles
for the tunnel on the condition that from Niagara Falls to Buffalo.
Edward Dean Adams, a lawyer,
engineer and banker, personally At midnight on November 15, 1896,
look after their interests. electricity produced from the waters.
of Niagara Falls was transmitted to
Experts studying the Niagara project Buffalo, the Queen City of the
considered the transmission of Great Lakes,
power by wire rope, compressed air,
water piped under pressure, and The genius, sweat and daring of Tesla,
even by electricity. Westinghouse, Adams and Edison
mean that today reliable, safe, electric
By the late summer of 1890, Adams' energy is available anywhere, anytime.
International Commission, composed
of the greatest scientific and &
engineering minds of the world,
decided that power would be
generated at a central station in the
form of electricity, using water from
the Niagara River above the Falls. The
water would be routed through the
tunnel and discharged below the Falls. •
Edward D. Adams
President of the Cataract
Construction Company, whose
careful direction brought the
vision of both the tunnel and
electrical power transmission
to reality.
The tunnel was started in October
1890. Twenty-five hundred men
removed 600,000 tons of rock and dirt.
November IS, J#9c
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
November 11, 2003
To all interested parties:
Ref: Tesla Energy Science Conference
The Integrity Research Institute held the Conference at the Sheraton College Park Hotel,
Beltsville, Maryland, on Saturday and Sunday, November 8 th and 9 th 2003. More than a
dozen contributors presented in a program of Tesla oriented topics to an audience of
about 150. Congratulations to the Institute and their President, Dr. Thomas Valone, for a
very successful and informative program. I thank the Institute and Tom Valone for their
care, attention and hospitality for both Boyana and me.
My contribution was A Family Perspective on the Personality of Nikola Tesla. My
presentation also included a review of the history and current status of the Tesla
WardenclyfFe Tower, featured by the Conference in honor of its 100 th anniversary, and a
recap of recent books and video documentaries in which Tesla is featured. Copies of my
remarks are available upon request.
My colleague and friend Dr. James Corum who, as an introduction to his presentation on
Tesla RF technology, spoke with great energy and appreciation of the true debt the world
owes to the many and varied contributions of Nikola Tesla. He showed how Tesla
combined all the elements of the great scientist he was, rather than the mysterious or
psychic loner as he is often portrayed. I thank Jim for those words.
As usual, the time available did not permit me to outline the most recent video
documentaries. Of particular note is The Battle of the Currents a 50-minute program
produced by a respected German documentary firm in German, French and English
versions. Now in postproduction, it is scheduled for U.S. presentation on the Discovery
Channel in the autumn of 2004.
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary
(732) 396-8852
WHT/tmsrf
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals oj the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, allvolunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
TESLA ENERGY SCIENCE CONFERENCE
Integrity Research Institute
Beltsville, Maryland
November 8 th and 9 th , 2003
Comments By
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
I have been dealing with the personality, accomplishments and ideals of Nikola Tesla for
almost my entire life. The form of that attention has changed over the past sixty plus
years from the family aspect of a simple and respectful recognition of a man from another
age who just happened to be my father’s uncle to being closely associated with the
popular revival of interest in a giant often regarded as the greatest inventive mind of the
modern technological era.
Nikola Tesla has been the subject of every facet of modern media, both directly and in
the context of other aspects of history, technology and his impact on today’s society.
Over the years hundreds of articles have focused on him, dozens of books have recounted
his life and accomplishments, a score of documentaries have featured his place in modern
history and more than one feature film have been devoted to this remarkable man. Most
of these works have sought to capture something of the essence of this dramatic but
enigmatic man. But even the most diligently prepared works focus on the American
years of invention and conflict with but a cursory sketch of Tesla’s early years and but a
distant appreciation of the philosophy and sensibilities that drove the man. Often the
research done relied on earlier, less reliable, work with the effect of compounding errors
of fact and detail.
Today, I would like to touch on three areas of Tesliana: First, a little background on
current areas of Tesla recognition and some personal thoughts on the private character of
Nikola from a family point of view; then, a brief history and current status of the featured
topic of this conference, the Wardenclyffe Tower; and in conclusion, a recap of books
about Tesla (the cool medium) and network video documentaries (the hot medium).
TESLA RECOGNITION
Tesla’s name is much more familiar to Europeans than to Americans. His name appears
(as a brand) on widely distributed household light bulbs and appliances in Eastern and
Southern Europe. Many large-scale electrical installations bear his name in Europe and
elsewhere. (I understand that the new scientific Particle Accelerator under construction
in Germany is to bear Tesla’s name.) In Europe, outside of the former Yugoslavia, this
significant level of recognition does not regularly extend to busts and plaques.
2
However, many American locations linked to Tesla are recognized with plaques, street
names and so forth. The most impressive is a more that twice life sized statue of Tesla
overlooking Niagara Falls, the 1973 Bicentennial gift to the United States from the
government of Yugoslavia. Tesla is depicted seated, on a raised pedestal, with a set of
plans spread across his lap. This “seat” in his lap provides an inviting photo opportunity
for parents of children visiting the Falls. (Such a video clip was a part of this year’s
I@NewYork tourism campaign).
To date, bronze busts of Tesla (with black granite bases and bronze plaques) have been
placed in honored locations in ten of America’s leading universities, the result of a
nonprofit citizen’s campaign led by an educator, John W. Wagner. (Funding for the busts
comes from personal funds, gifts, grants and the sale of thousands of high quality “Tesla”
T-shirts. For more information e-mail: jMf\vagner@concentric.net).
HISTORY
Nikola Tesla was a superstar of a hundred years ago and the popular darling of the print
media much in the manner of today’s movie stars and sports heroes. (Remember,
Engineering was once the stuff of romance.) The stardom thrust on Tesla started with the
introduction of his alternating current system in the early 1890’s and captured the
imagination of the entire world with the harnessing of Niagara Falls in 1896. The
connection between efficient and transportable electric energy quickly replacing previous
inefficient methods with an accompanying decrease in exhausting manual labor was not
lost on the general public. They credited the improvement in productivity and living
standards to Tesla. Soon the public clamored to hear the details of each new discovery of
this scientific icon.
That fame continued in a somewhat more modest measure through the 1930’s while he
lived. But after his death in 1943, this recognition quietly faded as the nation and the
world concluded the World War and directed its attention to reconstruction and an
explosion of new technology. It took another 25 years for people to reflect on just who
was responsible for the new standard of ease and comfort enjoyed by modern societies.
The name of Nikola Tesla, now almost completely unknown to the new generations, kept
appearing when talk turned to the creative source of the technology that brought electric
power, radio and a host of other everyday devices to the masses.
My father, Nikola Trbojevich (Nicholas J. Terbo) was the son of Tesla’s eldest sister,
Angelina. (At my Anglo-American mother’s preference, we used the social name of
Terbo and I was born with that name - father’s professional name of Trbojevich was well
established before their marriage in 1923.) Until my father’s generation the Tesla and
Trbojevic (the Serbian spelling) families were almost exclusively clericals in the Serbian
Orthodox religion living nearby in the same Austro-Hungarian Military Frontier province
county of Lika (now a part of Croatia) directly facing, at that time, the Ottoman Empire’s
most westward reach.
2
3
Two important elements established a special link between Tesla and father (30 years
Tesla’s junior): they were the only members of the extended families who were
technically educated and the only members who immigrated to America. Father’s
professional and financial standing was secured by his invention of the Hypoid gear, used
on the vast majority of the world’s automobiles since 1930. The Hypoid gear introduced
advanced mathematics to the art of gear design much as Tesla united electrical theory and
electrical engineering. Tesla reveled in referring to father as “my nephew, the
mathematician.” Their family and intellectual connections made for frequent contact
between New York and Detroit by visit, phone, telegram and mail.
My relation to Tesla’s fame was quite subdued during the time of my education and early
professional life. If it hadn’t been for the Tesla Coil, which a few of the most
enterprising high school age youngsters chose to build after winding their first electric
motor, I don’t think Tesla’s name would have ever surfaced in that environment. With
me, it was which engineering school I would attend - not what career I would pursue.
My father’s professional success combined with Tesla’s reputation created a momentum
too hard to resist. In those days I never offered up my relationship to Tesla without some
specific reason. In all my courses in Electrical Engineering Tesla’s name was introduced
but once, and that in connection with the Coil. (However, when I took a course in gear
design, my father’s specialty, the Professor made me rise and be recognized - such was
my father’s more current reputation.)
After college I went to Los Angeles and became a part of the missile and space industry.
With the exception of a very few scientists and people of Slavic background, particularly
Serbs, Tesla’s name was completely forgotten there. A woman of German origin I knew
in Los Angeles danced with a Yugoslav folk dance club. I suggested that she might want
to mention to her friends in the group that she knew one of the closest living relative of
Nikola Tesla. The next day she told me they said “impossible that a close Tesla relative
would be in Los Angeles” and they didn’t believe me! I had to provide family detail to
convince them. It was my first realization of the almost reverential regard Serbs and
other Slavs hold for Tesla.
During my Los Angeles years my Secret clearance restricted my international travel
particularly to Eastern Europe, including Yugoslavia. In 1973 I made a career change to
satellite telecommunications and relocated first to Washington, DC and then to the New
York City metropolitan area. It was a pivotal time in the renewal of interest in Tesla,
both for his scientific accomplishments and for the intriguing texture of his personality.
To my amazement, the level of activity concerning Tesla in the East was exceptional and
well publicized. In 1975 Nikola Tesla was inducted into the National Inventors Hall Of
Fame with Orville and Wilbur Wright, Samuel F. B. Morse and Guglielmo Marconi. The
Hall is sponsored and publicized by the United States Department of Commerce. The
Bicentennial Year of 1976 brought forth a torrent of honors. By 1975 my relationship to
Tesla had been more widely known and I have been pleased to accept the Inventors Hall
Of Fame diploma, the 1983 issuance of a U.S. Postal Service commemorative stamp and
many other such honors in the family name.
3
4
In 1979 I was able to make my first trip to Yugoslavia. The reception accorded to me
was only a small measure or the almost religious esteem in which Tesla is held in the
land of his birth. No appointment was withheld, no courtesy was denied. Travel was
arranged throughout the entire country including Tesla’s and my father’s birth county of
Lika. I was finally able to visit the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade where the bulk of
his estate is preserved. The Museum possesses over 1,200 exhibits and 160,000 pages of
documents plus hundreds of other items of memorabilia, including more correspondence
with my father than I retain at home.
PERSONAL THOUGHTS
Let me talk for just a minute about the personality and character of Nikola Tesla. Much
has been written about his public persona, usually dealing with the creation and
implementation of his inventions and discoveries. Such writing tends to show a man of
overwhelming intellect, dedication and perseverance. It creates a picture of a somber and
sober person with a single-mindedness that seems to preclude a more human side. Much
has also been speculated on the private side of Tesla. This speculation has been much
influenced by his fastidious dress, his formal manners and his precise writhing style.
Aside from the more outrageous speculations, the conclusion drawn that this was an
introverted and driven workaholic without a fully developed personal side. However, put
in the context of the times, dress, manners and precision in writing were really hallmarks
of the decades on either side of the turn of the century. We have very few instances of
verifiable anecdotes from his closest friends because such gossip rarely found its way
into print. (What a change from today’s celebrity bashing.) But, in context or out of
context, these characterizations of Tesla’s private personality have been perpetuated.
I’ve thought of this and believe that I may very well have a unique insight into Tesla’s
private personality through a comparison with my father. The parallels in their lives far
exceed the common gene pool formed by their blood relationship. Except for being 30
years apart in age, the list of parallels is truly staggering:
® Both born in the Austro-Hungarian Military Frontier Province county of Lika
where periodic military incursions by the Ottomans created a special sense of
danger and responsibility among the border Serbs.
• Both sons of Serbian Orthodox priests and were raised in a very severe and
demanding faith.
« Both received high level technical educations far from home, necessary in those
days as such education was not available in the provinces. Tesla was educated in
Graz and Prague, father in Budapest.
® Both worked in Budapest for similar lengths of time and immigrated to the United
States at 28 years of age.
® Both exhibited qualities of dedication, patience, modesty and a philosophical turn
of mind and, as inventors, made their most important inventions in their middle
thirties.
@ Both suffered from a certain naivete, particularly in business, and acquired, but let
slip from their hands, a considerable fortune, and were ultimately frustrated.
4
5
• Both were strong and vigorous and died at 86 (Tesla) and 87 (father).
Considering my father’s personality and some of the anecdotes father told me about
Tesla, I believe that many of the affectations and idiosyncrasies so linked to Tesla
(aversion to pearls, fear of germs, reluctance to shake hands, super sensitivity to sound
and so forth) were well under control. Some, in his later life when the need to keep the
press interested was more important, were consciously exhibited. I think it amused him.
His wiping the silverware, measuring the volume of his meals and favoring multiples of
three is simply manifestations of mildly compulsive-neurotic tendencies. Better to do
something rather than sitting idly waiting for dinner to be served.
(When I met him as a seven, eight or nine year old boy, Tesla, 80 years old, hugged me,
kissed me in the Serbian manner and mussed my hair. This is hardly something for a
person to do if in fear of germs. Eight-year old boys must be crawling with germs,
regardless or how recently washed!)
While both Tesla and father had serious religious upbringing, I believe both were
governed by ethics rather than doctrine. I believe both had their feet firmly on the ground
when philosophizing and the most religion-inspired thought they had was a duty to serve
their fellow man. My father often said he would prefer the Nobel Prize to a million
dollars. That was long before the Nobel Prize WAS a million dollars. (My mother said
she would prefer the million.)
And that brings me to an unexpected point. Father had a good sense of humor and could
hardly finish telling a funny story without bursting into roars of laughter. Some of the
stories were from childhood in the old country - stories similar to the ones Tesla
probably knew and that tickled him. A friendship with Sam Clemens must have a strong
element of humor in it. When you next think of Nikola Tesla, that discoverer of great
concepts, think of him with a smile on his face and a laugh on his lips.
THE TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
To bring a focus to the increasing number of Tesla-oriented activities, the Tesla
Memorial Society was founded in 1979 and incorporated in 1980 as a non-profit, non¬
political, all volunteer membership organization operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of
the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. The Society Charter is to “honor and perpetuate the
memory and ideals 41 of Nikola Tesla through support of and participation in various
cultural activities and as a source for speakers and media contact. The Society is the
oldest U.S. based international organization honoring Nikola Tesla in continuous
operation. In 1980 I became a part of the Society first as Honorary Chairman, later as
Chairman of the Executive Board and more recently as Executive Secretary. One of my
principal tasks with the Society is to write and speak about Tesla the man in a correct
way that neither deifies him nor holds him to unqualified gossip.
William H. Terbo 9 November 2003 © 2003 WHT/tmsrc2
5
TESLA ENERGY SCIENCE CONFERENCE
WARDENCLYFFE TOWER
HISTORY
By 1900, at the age of 44, Nikola Tesla had already accomplished the equivalent of
several lifetimes of scientific work and invention. He had conquered the entire system of
alternating current, demonstrated radio and robotics and had recently concluded his
seminal experiments in high-frequency electricity in Colorado Springs. Those
experiments confirmed to Tesla that he could deliver power without wires on a small
scale. He felt he was on the threshold of a whole new technology and he needed to
transfer those Colorado results to a project of grander scale. The project he chose was the
Wardenclyffe tower. It became his financial undoing.
To this point, Tesla had been rewarded with a fortune from the sale of patents and
consulting work. But this was a fortune in personal terms - not a fortune in industrial or
business terms. His reputation was so well founded that he attracted the attention and
financial backing of both private wealth and corporate capital. (Even the cost of his
Colorado experimentation was beyond his personal resources and was mostly privately
funded.) The business potential that Tesla foresaw from his new project was such that
the lack of personal money should not be a problem. In June of 1900, Tesla set out to
acquire the necessary funding. By November he had a $150,000 commitment from J.P.
Morgan with an agreement to build a system within a year to transmit messages across
the Atlantic.
Tesla’s vision of the future of his system was astonishing in the context of the time. He
foresaw all aspects of wireless power and radio transmission: civil and commercial radio,
radiotelephone, mobile telephones, air and sea remote control devices, even television!
He later called his project the World System of intelligence transmission. The full details
of his vision were too ambitious to be divulged all at once for fear that they would be
interpreted as deranged. This would prove to be an impediment later as Tesla’s vision
was orders of magnitude more enterprising than simple Trans Atlantic message
transmission. This was a period in which T esla more often chose secrecy as a defense
against competitors, both business and technical. It is a two edged sword.
Immediately Tesla worked to complete the electrical design. In early 1901 he set about
ordering generators and transformers from Westinghouse Electric and acquiring land on
Long Island. The open farmland he selected was at Shoreham, about 75 miles east of
Manhattan. Purchased from a James S. Warden, the site was named Wardenclyffe. Tesla
engaged his friend, architect Stanford White, to design the principal building and a
colleague of White, W.D. Crow, to design the tower.
For most of 1901 Tesla lived near the site and supervised every detail. The White
building was completed and the tower was rising. It would be 187 feet above the ground
with a well 12 feet square and 120 feet deep as an integral part of the design.
1
The year was coming to a close and two important problems arose. The electrical
equipment was distressingly overdue and Marconi signaled the letter ”S” from England to
Newfoundland on December 12 th using equipment only a fraction of the complexity
being prepared at Wardenclyff! Now, the full reach of Tesla’s vision was coming to
light. He was planning to use Wardenclyffe to transmit electric power to any point on
earth without wires! Success would be the most important technical achievement of the
age. Even failure would be valiant, but what of the practical aspect for which the tower
had been funded?
Construction continued through 1902, more than a year beyond the timetable agreed to
with J.P. Morgan. In early 1903 the 68-foot diameter wooden spherical cage atop the
tower was nearing completion. This ball was to be sheathed in copper, but funds were
running out and many creditors were still to be paid. It was obvious that more funding
would have to be raised if the tower was to be made functional. Tesla wrote Morgan
several times that spring for additional funds. Finally, Morgan replied on July 14, 1903
with a firm “No.”
Morgan’s reputation for an eye for a good deal, and his refusal to invest more with Tesla
plus a Wall Street panic in the fall of 1903 made raising more funding impossible. His
longtime benefactor, Thomas Fortune Ryan, invested some additional money to pay
creditors, but no new funds were available for the tower. Effectively, this was the end of
the Wardenclyffe tower.
In 1915, Tesla turned the deed to the Wardenclyffe property over to the Waldorf-Astoria
hotel for $20,000 in unpaid hotel bills. The tower was demolished for salvage in 1917.
A predecessor of the current occupant, Peerless Photo Products, a subsidiary of the
Belgian photo company, Agfa-Gevaert, acquired 15 acres of the property in 1939. I
visited the site in September 1983 for a reception hosted by Agfa-Gevaert to receive a
presentation of the Nikola Tesla U.S. commemorative postage stamp. Peerless Photo was
still in operation at that time. The White building, bearing a bronze historical plaque, was
in good shape and being used for storage. The eight concrete foundations of the original
tower are clearly visible about 60 or 70 feet to the right of the White building. The 120-
foot deep well appears to have been filled in, perhaps to remove it from being an
attractive hazard to trespassing children.
CURRENT STATUS
Some years ago, perhaps as many as ten, Agfa-Gevaert terminated operations at Peerless
Photo. Before any disposition of the property can be made, Agfa must clean up the
ground contaminated from years of photochemical manufacturing by Peerless Photo. The
cleanup program must be approved and monitored by the Department Environmental
Conservation (DEC). Agfa has made an assessment of the problem and begun preparing
remediation plans for the DEC. The cleanup program is not a critical issue for Agfa as
the property is fenced and guarded.
2
The Shorham School District maintained a science museum at the Wading River High
School. The Museum Accreditation Association advised the District that they would
need more room. The Agfa property looked inviting both for availability and its
historical significance. To pursue this end, the museum board set up a not for profit
corporation. Friends of Science East (Friends/East), in 1996.
The intricacies of not for profit corporation regulations effectively preclude Friends/East
from accepting title to this property, should it be offered. The nearby Town of
Brookhaven was approached with the idea of a science museum on the Agfa property.
With Friends/East to run the museum, a large quantity of photo exhibits and Tesla
memorabilia available from the Tesla Wardenclyffe Project and the support of the Town,
the idea was presented to Agfa. The result on Agfa’s side has been positive - though in
no way a certainty. Donation of the property represents a viable alternative for Agfa with
favorable community goodwill.
(The Tesla Wardenclyffe Project was incorporated about the same time as Friends/East
with the aim of founding a Tesla museum on the Wardenclyffe site and preserving the
Stanford White building. They purchased the large Leland Anderson collection of Tesla
photographs and have joined with Friends/East in the Agfa museum site.)
There is a substantial level of interest for a museum at the Agfa Tesla site. The Town of
Brookhaven declared July 10, 2003 as Nikola Tesla Day, issued a Proclamation and held
a reception with multiple speakers. They intend to declare each July 10 Nikola Tesla Day
at least until 2006, Tesla’s 150 th Birthday. Several other nearby communities have joined
in recognizing Tesla and supporting a museum on the Agfa site. Brookhaven National
Laboratories, one of the Nation’s leading science institutions, is located in the immediate
area and could be a source technical speakers and exhibits.
Acknowledgements to Leland I. Anderson for history and Marianne Macy for current
status assists.
William H. Terbo 9 November 2003 © 2003 WHT/tmsrd
3
TESLA ENERGY SCIENCE CONFERENCE
BOOKS
A great deal has been written by and about Nikola Tesla from the time he arrived in
America in 1884, through his life and continuing to the present. The volume over time
has depended on his level of fame at each period in his life or in the more recent
recognition of the importance of his inventions and the intriguing aspects of his
philosophy and personality.
At the height of his fame from 1890 to about 1910, the volume was staggering. The
Tesla Collection (sponsored by the Tesla Memorial Society) contains 4,500 pages of
unduplicated material covering the period from 1885 to 1920. As Tesla was a darling of
the popular press, the majority of items are from the ten New York daily and Sunday
newspapers. But also included is a wealth of serious and technical items from scientific
and professional publications. Nikola Tesla himself wrote at least 66 significant articles
and lectures between 1887 and 1934 plus the series of articles in 1919 that made up his
autobiography My Inventions.
In trying to sort out a relatively brief list of titles from my personal library of 100 or more
“Tesla” books, I’ve tried to organize them into categories from the earliest to the most
recent entries. For anyone wishing to write a biography, novel (or term paper) about
Nikola Tesla need only the following four titles to provide the basic “Tesla” research:
• My Inventions, The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla (1919), Ben Johnson, Editor,
1982, Hart Brothers (11 lpages). The series of six articles published between
February and October 1919 in the magazine Electrical Experimenter with a new,
informative and perceptive Introduction by Ben Johnson.
« Prodigal Genius, The Life of Nikola Tesla, John J. O’Neill, 1944, Ives Washburn
(326 pages). A mixture of fact and fiction with few footnotes and no
bibliography to distinguish between the two. O’Neill, a believer in spiritualism
and psychic powers, rushed the book into print and suggested, in a manner, that
his friend, Tesla, also had such powers. This book, cited by many later writers, is
primarily responsible for much of the mythology that surrounds Tesla’s name
today.
® The Complete Patents of Nikola Tesla, Jim Glenn, Editor, 1994, Barnes & Noble
Books (535 pages). Almost more than you need to know with helpful
Introductions by Jim Glenn.
® Tesla, Man Out Of Time, Margaret Cheney, 1981, Prentice-Hall (320 pages). A
carefully researched work, both historically and technically, that caught the wave
of new interest in Tesla, the man. More than 200,000 in print and translated into
several languages included Japanese and Korean.
To write a new biography of the whole life of Nikola Tesla, one that will supplant
existing work such as Margaret Cheney’s Man Out Of Time, will require a prodigious
amount of research and dedication. The alternative is to address a situation in which
1
Tesla played a pivotal role - to create a dramatic “hook” upon which the author can find
a market for a new work that includes meeting the public thirst for more information
about this enigmatic, reclusive giant whose scientific contributions are being more
commonly known.
I have tried to make myself available to as many authors and playwrights as seek my
assistance. By doing so, I hope to correct some of the errors that have been perpetuated
by reliance on flawed research material. Currently, I’m dealing with at least half dozen
writers who are moving forward on Tesla projects. Whether any new books or scripts
from this effort will actually see the light of day is yet to be determined.
A number of new books have reached the market in the past year or two. Each relies on
a “hook” to include a major and necessary sketch of Tesla, his personality and his
participation in the subject at hand. While all include significant research on all aspects
of the theme being examined, some have fallen back on the “easy” Tesla research
described above. Among the most prominent are:
« Empires of Light, Jill Jonnes, 2003, Random House (416 pages). The “hook” is
in the subtitle: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the race to electrify the world.
Ms. Jonnes treats Tesla very kindly and with great sympathy, acknowledging
every element of the Tesla AC system that won the day for Westinghouse. She
also deals directly with Edison’s obstructionism in defending his DC system.
Westinghouse is very favorably characterized as the (unusual) model of a moral
industrial tycoon. I watched an hour interview of Ms. Jonnes on a very recent C-
SPAN Boo/motes program. I squirmed as she failed to answer almost any
question concerning the details of book as put to her by Host Brian Lamb. (She
did remember the date of the electrocution of axe murderer, William Kemmler.)
It appears she left the 2-year writing effort on the page and not in her head.
® The Devil in the White City, Erik Larson, 2003, Crown Publishers (447 pages).
The “hook” is the creation of the 1893 Columbian Exposition “White City” from
the swampy Jackson Park while a serial killer built a “World’s Fair Hotel” nearby
where scores of young women were tortured, killed and cremated. Mr. Larson
examines the intrigue of Chicago politics surrounding the contracts for building
the “White City” and the detective work (albeit too late) of catching the killer.
The contest between General Electric and Westinghouse to light the Exposition is
a part of the story - and Westinghouse’s Tesla patent victory “helped change the
history of electricity.”
® Nikola Tesla, The European Years, D. (Dan) Mrkich, 2003, Commoner’s
Publishing, Ottawa (143 pages). Most Tesla writing deals with the romance of
his American years of invention, success and frustration with only a superficial
nod to his earlier years usually gleaned from his autobiography. Mr. Mrkich has
provided important new research that fills in details that Tesla omitted (or may
have chosen to ignore) in later writings. He has visited every site (and every
building, if still standing) and every source of records where Tesla lived, was
educated and worked. In addition to sites in the former Yugoslavia, these
locations include Graz , Prague, Budapest, Paris and Strasbourg. Among the new
2
information revealed was his work in Maribor, Slovenia, where he worked as a
common draftsman during the time he was avoiding University and his parents. I
consulted with Mr. Mrkich and had the honor of writing the Foreword to The
European Years.
• Nikola Tesla, Tagebuch Aus Strassburg (Journal From Strasbourg), 2002,
Nikola Tesla Museum, Belgrade (251 pages, German and Serbian). The Journal
covers the correspondence with Paris Edison Company (and an accounting of
every Mark and Franc spent) for the year 1883-84 while Tesla repaired the
Edison lighting system which had blown up in the presence of the Kaiser at its
dedication. The Journal shows that Tesla could be an effective manager as well
as a talented engineer.
® Executioner’s Current, Richard Moran, 2002, Alfred A. Knopf (271 pages). The
story of how Thomas Edison’s contribution to the American criminal justice
system was born out of corporate greed. Edison’s attempt to make George
Westinghouse into America’s Dr. Guillotine is a damning contradiction of the
folksy image of this “Icon of Electricity.” While Tesla’s involvement in this
contest is minor, his technology is paramount. Recently, I listened to a long NPR
radio interview with Mr. Moran. When asked at the end of the interview what
other thoughts he had about his book, Mr. Moran launched into a laudatory
stream about his regard for Nikola Tesla. There is a contagion for writers when
confronted with the personality of Tesla.
• Harnessing the Wheelwork of Nature, Thomas Valone, Editor, 2002, Adventures
Unlimited Press (338 pages). A collection of articles (many not published
before) dealing with Tesla’s Science of Energy, with a lengthy Introduction to
correlate the collection.
• The Man Who Invented the Twentieth Century , Nikola Tesla, Forgotten Genius of
Electricity, Robert Lomas, 1999, Headline Book Publishing, London (248 pages).
The “hook” is the approach to Tesla’s life and business decisions through the
“money trail” and is ingenious and almost unique among the many other Tesla
biographies. Dr. Lomas lectures in Engineering Management, is a lifelong
enthusiast for Tesla and teaches his student how NOT to run their business
affairs.
• Tesla, Master of Lightning, Margaret Cheney & Robert Uth, 1999, Barnes &
Noble Books (184 pages). The Companion Book for the 90-minute PBS
television biography Master of Lightning and the best publication available for a
sketch of the complete Tesla. Illustrated with over 200 photos, illustrations and
drawings.
These are a few additional books and publications that deserve to be mentioned for
historical value or specific target audiences:
• Nikola Tesla, Memorandum book on the occasion of his 80 th anniversary, 1936,
Institute Nikola Tesla Foundation, Belgrade (520 pages). Birthday greetings
from every corner of the world and Proceedings of a Conference on Tesla
Technology accompanying the anniversary celebration. For example, a portion
of the congratulations from Ernest Rutherford of Cambridge “I was greatly
3
impressed in my younger days by his experiments on high frequency currents. I
have often made use of the Tesla transformer as a method of producing high
voltages in my researches.”
• Lightning In His Hand, The Life Story of Nikola Tesla, Inez Hunt and Wanetta
W. Draper, 1964, Omni Publications (269 pages). A successful biography at the
low point of Tesla’s fame.
• Light and other High Frequency Phenomena, Nikola Tesla, 1893, National
Electric Light Association (114 pages). An original copy of an historic Tesla
lecture.
• Priority in the Invention of Radio, Tesla vs. Marconi, Leland Anderson, 1980,
Antique Wireless Association (article, 9 pages). Chapter and verse citing Tesla
priority through lectures, patents, experiments and the findings of the U.S.
Supreme Court.
® Nikola Tesla, Colorado Springs Notes 1899-1900, Scientific Commentaries by
Aleksandar Marincic, 1978, NOLIT / Nikola Tesla Museum, Belgrade (437
pages). Tesla’s notes organized, interpreted and defined by Dr. Marincic.
• Nikola Tesla, Correspondence with Relatives, 1993, Nikola Tesla Museum,
Belgrade (397 pages). English version, translated by Nicholas Kosanovich,
1995, Tesla Memorial Society (200 pages). Of particular interest to me as over
one-third of the correspondence is between Tesla and my father, Nikola
Trbojevich, also a prominent scientist and inventor.
• The Streams ofLenard and Roentgen and Novel Apparatus for Their Production,
Nikola Tesla: Lecture before the New York Academy of Sciences - April 6,
1897, Leland I. Anderson, Editor, 1994, Twenty First Century Books (123
pages). A lecture that went far beyond the title with editorial discussion of
departures by Mr. Anderson.
® Nikola Tesla, A Spark of Genius, Carol Dommermuth-Costa, 1994, Lerner
Publications (144 pages). Latest and best of a number of Tesla biographies for
younger students.
• Tesla, Tad Wise, 1994, Turner Publishing (381 pages). “A biographical novel of
the world’s greatest inventor.”
® Wizard, The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla, Marc J. Seifer, 1996, Birch Lane
Press (542 pages). In addition to a biographical narrative, Dr. Seifer, a noted
handwriting expert, examines the stress of relationships between Tesla and many
of his business contemporaries. I consulted with Dr. Seifer and had the honor to
write the Foreword to Wizard.
• Nikola Tesla, Guided Weapons & Computer Technology, Leland I. Anderson,
Editor, 1998. Twenty First Century Books (241 pages). Tesla’s patented
development of the first radio remote controlled device, a boat demonstrated to
the public in 1899, also resulted in one of the fundamental building blocks of
circuit and computer design, the computer AND gate
William H. Terbo 9 November ©2003 WHT/tmsrb2
4
TESLA ENERGY SCIENCE CONFERENCE
VIDEO DOCUMENTARIES
The best way to educate the general public about Tesla his accomplishments and persona
is through the mass media. Television is the medium of choice. It is “hot” and reaches
the largest number of people. Radio reaches large numbers but it’s “cool.” Books and
newspapers involve people but the numbers are smaller - and they are “cool.” The Tesla
Memorial Society supports documentary production companies with photos,
memorabilia, advice, contacts and on-camera interviews. Such cooperation often bears
fruit. By providing the best and most dramatic Tesla photos, promos for the upcoming
documentaries will feature more images of Tesla than of other participants.
I’ve just picked the most recent documentaries featuring Tesla. My experience is that an
introduction to Tesla for producers, writers and directors makes them fans and inspires
them to do their best. Tesla is addictive!
• Battle of the Currents , Engstfeld Film GmbH, Germany, 2004, 45 minutes,
German; 52 minutes, French; 52 minutes English. The first of a 4-part series on
invention. (The other parts address Goodyear and vulcanizing rubber, radar and
the submarine.) This is a well-funded project. (They came to the U.S. from
Germany with a 7-person crew.) The video is in post-production now and
scheduled for network release in autumn, 2004. The U.S. network is to be the
Discovery Channel. I’ve had multiple contacts with the producer and believe the
thrust of the documentary strongly favors Tesla. My two-hour on-camera
interview took place beside Edison’s desk at the Edison National Historical Site in
West Orange, New Jersey. If experience is any measure, I will appear for one
minute or less.
a Nikola Tesla , Fontis TV Production, Czech Republic, 2002, 22 minutes, Czech.
The Czech Ministry of Education became aware that very few students were
aware of Tesla, who was educated in Prague, and his contributions to modern
society. The video is to be shown to Czech students at the High School level.
The 3-person Fontis crew shot at my home, five locations in Manhattan and
Niagara Falls, America and Canada. I did another 2-hour on-camera interview for
Fontis and introduced the Manhattan sites.
• The Top 15 Inventors of the 20 th Century , Kralyevich Productions for the Arts &
Entertainment Networks, 2002, 59 minutes. Inventors was one of a series of
A&E programs celebrating the 15 th anniversary of their Biography series. Tesla
was ranked 7 th , which I thought was about right for inventions patented in the
20 th Century! (Experts praised Tesla much more than befits a #7 ranking.) The
concept was flawed in that inventors were included who had no inventions (Ford
#12), or that patented nothing of note in the 20 th century (Edison #1) while
excluding inventors who patented before 1900 (Alexander Graham Bell). Again,
I did a 2-hour interview in a Manhattan studio for 30 seconds face time.
• In Search Of ..., KAOS Entertainment for Fox Television, 2001, originally 50
minutes. Originally one of eight segments shot for a return of the long running
1
series bought by Fox. When the return was canceled, the segments were sold,
first to the UPN Network and ultimately to the SciFi Channel where it appeared in
an 18-minute version with two other segments. My 2-hour on-camera interview
resulted in a few seconds of face time (plus some voice-over.)
° Tesla ’ Master of Lightning, New Voyage Communications for PBS Television
Network, 2000, 90 minutes. This is the standard for Tesla biographies to date.
The producer, Robert Uth, spent time on the details and had full use of important
archival materials from several sources. In addition to several showings on PBS
TV, the video is available to schools through the PBS Educational Co-op
Program. My 2-hour on-camera interview resulted in considerable face time.
The Society has cooperated with many other documentary producers over the past four or
five years. Tesla has been featured in British, Japanese, Australian and Danish videos in
addition to U.S. network and cable outlets like ABC, The Learning Channel and PBS.
The commercial film The Secret of Nikola Tesla, starring Petar Bozovic (as Tesla), Orson
Welles (as J.P. Morgan), Strother Martin (as Westinghouse) and Dennis Patrick (as
Edison) was produced in 1981 in the former Yugoslavia (in English). In spite of
excellent production values, it treated Tesla with too much reverence, st ifli ng the
dramatic possibilities. Since then at least a dozen new films have been announced with
none yet arriving on the screen. Famous directors and famous actors have been named
without a film being started, much less being finished.
William H. Terbo 9 November 2003 © 2003 WHT/tmsre
2
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21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Letter from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated January 9, 1893
Draft of text handwritten on Gerlach Family Hotel stationary (italics to show indistinct
writing)
(First handwritten page)
New York Jan. 9 1893 (bold preprinted on Hotel stationary)
Dear Mr. Adams,
Last night in going with Mr. White over the clear specification of Prof. Xxxx's I noted
that Prof. Xxxx’s wishes the speed of the turbine to be about 150 rev. I thought it barely
possible that all the details have not been explained to him and that consequently he
might not be aware of over -load disadvantages resulting from the load speed. For
instance from the sketch you showed me 1 understood, that the distance between the wall
and the dynamo was only 8-10 feet on the assumption, that the dynamo had a diameter of
something like 19 feet. Now 1 believe that in the design of Mr. Schmid
(Second handwritten page)
the dynamo is of very nearly the above diameter on the assumption that the speed of the
turbine is 250 rev. If you would reduce the speed it would necessitate, if proper rules of
construction are observed, that the diameter of the dynamo be made considerably larger,
which would leave still a smaller space between the wall and the machine, and this I
think, with such significant machinery which will be viewed by Morivands, would be
decidedly bad. Of course, 1 need not say that such a low speed dynamo would cost much
more. I am of the opinion that you should consider this, so much the moie, as Prof.
Xxxx’s, does not lay particular stress upon the low speed but surely would prefer it if it
were practicable. Even with 250 rev. the dynamo is, to be sure, large enough.
Kindly consider this communication and others which I may make entirely
personal as 1 would not run the risk of offending Prof. Xxxxx, whom I highly esteem:
Yours sincerely
N Tesla.
WHT/tmsxa
Visit our website: leslamemorialsociety.org
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Letter from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated February 2, 1983
Draft of text handwritten on plain stationary (italics to show indistinct writing or
clarification)
(First handwritten page)
Feb. 2, 1893
Dear Mr. Adams,
Your fav. (favor) has just reached me. The danger when working unattended is
not as great as you may suppose. I have been constantly at work with currents up to a
quarter million volts for two or three years past and have met with only one accident. Of
all forms of energy harnessed in the service of man, that of electricity is certainly the
least dangerous were it only on account of the fact that but a single person can be injured
at a time.
I have not as yet heard from Germany but I have not the slightest doubt that all
Companies except Helios, who have acquired the rights from my Company will have to
stop the manufacture of phase motors. Proceedings against the infringers
(Second handwritten page)
have been taken in the most energetic way by the Helios Co. It is for this reason that oui
enemies are driven to the single phase system and rapid changes of opinion.
In regard to your query about synchronous motors I would say that the motors
will run in exact synchronism with the generator in spite of any number of
transformations. We can also make according to my patents changes in the speed as we
like. For instance the motor may be made to run at any fraction (within certain limits) or
multiples of the speed of the generator. This feature is valuable in the general
distribution. 1 would also say, that besides synchronous forms of motor we have also
such as required for the operation of devices requiring great effort but not constant speed,
as for instance, cranes e.t.c.
That the phase system is not yet in extensive operation is due merely to
circumstances of which you are aware to some extent. A number of motor plants have
been put in mines where they have given the utmost satisfaction. There is no danger that
the phase system will be superceded (variant of superseded) by the single current system.
The advantages of the former are to (sic) great. Next time I have the pleasure to meet
you I will show you the reasons.
Sincerely yours
N Tesla.
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P. S. Please kindly excuse this hasty communication. (Written vertically in the
left-hand margin of second page)
WHT/tmsxb
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Letter from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated February 6, 1893 .
Draft of text handwritten on plain stationary (italics to show indistinct writing or
clarification)
(First handwritten page)
Feb. 6, 1893
Dear Mr. Adams,
I thank you for your attention shown by your letter of the 4 th inst. which has
reached me in due course together with enclosures which I herewith return.
In regard to the article you had the kindness to call to my notice I would say that
the writer has expressed a number of times quite opposite views. I have been sorry to
find his contributions as a rule so weak, that it was quite impossible for me to comply
with scientific courtesy by answering them. The plan proposed by him is many years old
and has been repeatedly tried especially at the debut of the alternating system, but was
found impracticable. I would want to have a longei
(Second handwritten page)
talk with you to explain some details and you would at once see the absuidity oi the plan.
Were it at all practicable I could prove at any time that my system would offer a saving of
40% - 50% over his.
I have to tell you the term “multiphase motors” comprises 3 distinct forms of my
motors: 1) Non synchronous (used at Laufferi) 2) Synchronous but entirely alternating 3)
Synchronous with field - directly excited. All criticisms apply only to the first two
forms. In both forms the highest efficiency can be reached, and their only defect is that
the current is somewhat larger than it ought to be in a perfect machine. This defect,
however, does not amount to anything in ordinary practice as it may be made to disappeai
entirely. To illustrate, we only need to raise the e.m.f. 25% and we save on copper even
against the direct current system.
(Third handwritten page)
Objections as to the current have therefore no weight, as it is much easier to run a
machine which has no commutator or brushes with an e.m.f. 25% higher than a direct
current machine with an adequately smaller e.m.f. Not to speak of the advantages which
the ideal simplicity of these machines affords in the long run.
Under frequent conditions in practice it would be entirely impossible for any
system to compete this ideally simple one; but I must say that again under different
conditions a better solution is possible. This is the third form of my motor. This form
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has never been criticized by the adversaries of my system and for a good reason, because
it is the most efficient form of electric machine that has been produced to this day. I have
shown that on such machines under favorable conditions an efficiency of 97% can be
obtained. In output per weight it can be equaled
(Fourth handwritten page)
by no machine whatever, direct or alternating. It also possesses the ideal feature of
running in absolute synchronism with the generator, while it has a good starting figure.
This is the type of machine you have seen and which the W. Co (assume Westinghouse
Company) propose to use for large units. You need not think that this form of machine
has not been thoroughly tried. This machine merely is equivalent to two or three
synchronizing machines coupled. A saving of expense and numerous practical
advantages of vital importance is the result. For large units, especially, it would be
utterly impossible for any system to compete with this. The advantages of this system are
so great that even had we today a perfect alternating current motor requiring two wires,
the system would have to be introduced just as soon as it comes to earning dividends on
the capital. The three wire system offered to the direct current distribution comprising
very small advantages, yet the three wire system was adopted. But what is recognized
merely an advantage in direct current distribution will become dire necessity in the
alternating system.
(The following written vertically in the left-hand margin of the fourth page)
Sincerely yours
N Tesla
Excuse haste
WHT/tmsxc
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Letter from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated March 12, 1893
Draft of text handwritten on Gerlach Family Hotel stationary (italics to show indistinct
writing or clarification and bold to show text underlining)
(First handwritten page)
New York, March 12 1893 (bold preprinted on Hotel stationary)
Dear Mr. Adams,
Although 1 have had exchange of thoughts with you in regard to your fav. (favor)
of Feb. 23 rd I consider it necessary to express myself quite clearly and by letter in regard
to that subject.
The patent of Thomson Nr. 363 . 1 86 , to which reference is made, has absolutely
nothing to do with my discovery of the rotating magnetic field and the radically novel
features of my system of transmission of power disclosed in my foundation patents of
1888. All the elements shown in the Thomson patent were well known and had been
used long before by a number of
(Second handwritten page)
experimenters. I myself exhibited devices early in 1887, but I was not encouraged to
work in that direction as I found that the motor was very inefficient and that the
commutator and brushes caused trouble. 1 showed in my patents that alternating motors
could be run without the employment of a commutator and I produced an efficient and
practical motor, which I was able to run either on multiple or single alternating circuits.
In fact, one of the many reasons why 1 advocated the adoption of two phase currents
rather than three phase shown in my patents was, that a two phase motor was better
suitable for single or ordinary existing circuits and that it could be operated on these
circuits with fair efficiency, though smaller than that obtained by the use of multiple
supply circuits. Some engineers do not realize this even today.
As to the Bradley patents,
(Third handwritten page - on Hotel letterhead stationary)
to which reference is likewise made, I would think it fair to all concerned that a thorough
examination be made of their history and bearing. Such examination, which has been
made by myself without the slightest prejudice, will convince you that in the earliest
patent there is not the least hint of a method of transmission of power which would be
novel, or of devices which would not have been described before. As regards the later
patents they are plainly covered by my fundamental claims.
Engineers are beginning now to
Visit our website: teslainemorialsociety.org
(Fourth handwritten page)
notice that the earning capacity of an alternating plant with currents of more than one
phase is much greater and that we are forcibly driven to introduce in our alternating
systems of distribution multiple circuits. Some think that a perfect alternating motor, to
be on one single circuit, could satisfy all needs. In reality such a motor would have a
very limited value in a year or two, when, in consec|uence of competition the necessity
will rise to use more than one circuit. The direct systems had to go through such a
process merely for the sake ot saving some copper, and their engineers had to make
extensive changes and considerably complicate the systems at that.
Yours sincerely
N. Tesla.
P. S.
Thanks for the clippings received.
WHT/tmsxd
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyclc Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Note from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated March 22, 1893
Draft of text handwritten on 5x8 inch lined notepaper (italics to show indistinct writing
or clarification and bold to show text underlining)
(First handwritten sheet)
New York March 22, 1893.
Dear Mr. Adams,
Your fav. (favor/letter) received. 1 forward copy of “Electrician” of Aug. 5.
The writers of these articles are absolutely unacquainted (that is they were) with
some facts. For instance they do not know that by merely winding the motor in a certain
way absolute constancy of the field is obtained with two phases, so that it is the same as
far as this is concerned
(Second handwritten sheet)
whether there are two or a million phases. But the gravest error the Authors make is that
they express the belief that the constancy of field is important for the efficiency of the
motor. In my earlier work 1 thought so and constmcted motors with many phases. You
will find in going over my writings and patents that I have before advanced all these
views, and what these writers state in this journal is merely a repetition of what I have
shown or stated. But I convinced myself that it is not im-
(Third handwritten sheet)
portant at all to have the field constant. The chief importance in an alternate current
motor rests upon the intimate magnetic connection between the field and armature coils,
as I have pointed out long ago. But even the closure of the magnetic circuit must be
influenced by practical considerations. For instance some of my first motors I made with
holes in the armature and field in order to close the magnetic circuit more completely.
This causes some disadvantages when the machine is worked
(Fourth handwritten sheet)
directly, also when it is operated from a transformer (more or less). We found that for
each motor, according to what it is built for, certain rules of construction had to be
followed. On this entire books can be written. Even presently there are perhaps one half
a dozen Engineers who know fairly well this subject.
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I have to advise you to accept the two phase plan, though it would be much more
for my personal interest if you would decide for the three phase. I shall explain this to
you when I next have the pleasure of meeting you.
Yours sincerely
N Tesla.
Excuse in haste
WHT/tmsxf
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Letter from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated January 9, 1893
Draft of text handwritten on Gerlach Family Hotel stationary (italics to show indistinct
writing)
(First handwritten page)
New York Jan. 9 1893 (bold preprinted on Hotel stationary)
Dear Mr. Adams,
Last night in going with Mr. White over the dear specification of Prof. Xxxx s I noted
that Prof. Wear’s wishes the speed of the turbine to be about 150 rev. I thought it barely
possible that all the details have not been explained to him and that consequently he
might not be aware of over -load disadvantages resulting from the load speed. For
instance from the sketch you showed me I understood, that the distance between the wall
and the dynamo was only 8-10 feet on the assumption, that the dynamo had a diameter of
something like 19 feet. Now 1 believe that in the design of Mr. Schmid
(Second handwritten page)
the dynamo is of very nearly the above diameter on the assumption that the speed of the
turbine is 250 rev. If you would reduce the speed it would necessitate, if proper rules of
construction are observed, that the diameter of the dynamo be made considerably larger,
which would leave still a smaller space between the wall and the machine, and this I
think, with such significant machinery which will be viewed by Morivands, would be
decidedly bad. Of course, 1 need not say that such a low speed dynamo would cost much
more. I am of the opinion that you should consider this, so much the more, as Prof. _
Wax’s does not lay particular stress upon the low speed but surely would prefer it if it
were practicable. Even with 250 rev. the dynamo is, to be sure, large enough.
Kindly consider this communication and others which I may make entirely
personal as 1 would not run the risk of offending Prof. Wxxxx, whom I highly esteem:
Yours sincerely
N Tesla.
WHT/tmsxa
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Letter from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated February 2, 1983
Draft of text handwritten on plain stationary (italics to show indistinct writing or
clarification)
(First handwritten page)
Feb. 2, 1893
Dear Mr. Adams,
Your fav. (favor) has just reached me. The danger when working unattended is
not as great as you may suppose. I have been constantly at work with currents up to a
quarter million volts for two or three years past and have met with only one accident. Of
all forms of energy harnessed in the service of man, that of electricity is certainly the
least dangerous were it only on account of the tact that but a single person can be injured
at a time.
I have not as yet heard from Germany but 1 have not the slightest doubt that all
Companies except Helios, who have acquired the rights from my Company will have to
stop the manufacture of phase motors. Proceedings against the infringers
(Second handwritten page)
have been taken in the most energetic way by the Helios Co. It is for this reason that our
enemies are driven to the single phase system and rapid changes of opinion.
In regard to your query about synchronous motors I would say that the motors
will run in exact synchronism with the generator in spite of any number of
transformations. We can also make according to my patents changes in the speed as we
like. For instance the motor may be made to run at. any fraction (within certain limits) or
multiples of the speed of the generator. This feature is valuable in the general
distribution. 1 would also say, that besides synchronous forms of motor we have also
such as required for the operation of devices requiring great effort but not constant speed,
as for instance, cranes e.t.c.
That the phase system is not yet in extensive operation is due merely to
circumstances of which you are aware to some extent. A number of motor plants have
been put in mines where they have given the utmost satisfaction. There is no dangei that
the phase system will be superceded (variant of superseded) by the single current system.
The advantages of the former are to (sic) great. Next time I have the pleasure to meet
you I will show you the reasons.
Sincerely yours
N Tesla.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
V
'*
*
*
P. S. Please kindly excuse this hasty communication. (Written vertically in the
left-hand margin of second page)
WHT/tmsxb
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V
V
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Letter from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated February 6, 1893
Draft of text handwritten on plain stationary (italics to show indistinct writing or
clarification)
(First handwritten page)
Feb. 6, 1893
Dear Mr. Adams,
I thank you for your attention shown by your letter of the 4 th inst. which has
reached me in due course together with enclosures which I herewith return.
In regard to the article you had the kindness to call to my notice I would say that
the writer has expressed a number of times quite opposite views. I have been sorry to
find his contributions as a rule so weak, that it was quite impossible for me to comply
with scientific courtesy by answering them, i he plan proposed by him is many years old
and has been repeatedly tried especially at the debut of the alternating system, but was
found impracticable. I would want to have a longer
(Second handwritten page)
talk with you to explain some details and you would at once see the absuidity of the plan.
Were it at all practicable I could prove at any time that my system would offer a saving of
40% - 50% over his.
I have to tell you the term “multiphase motors” comprises 3 distinct forms of my
motors: 1) Non synchronous (used at Lauffcti) 2) Synchronous but entirely alternating 3)
Synchronous with field - directly excited. All criticisms apply only to the first two
forms. In both forms the highest efficiency can be reached, and their only defect is that
the current is somewhat larger than it ought to be in a perfect machine. This defect,
however, does not amount to anything in ordinary practice as it may be made to disappear
entirely. To illustrate, we only need to raise the e.m.f. 25% and we save on coppei even
against the direct current system.
(Third handwritten page)
Objections as to the current have therefore no weight, as it is much easier to run a
machine which has no commutator or brushes with an e.m.f. 25% higher than a direct
current machine with an adequately smaller e.m.f. Not to speak of the advantages which
the ideal simplicity of these machines affords in the long run.
Under frequent conditions in practice it would be entirely impossible for any
system to compete this ideally simple one; but I must say that again under different
conditions a better solution is possible. This is the third form of my motor. This form
Visit our website: leslciineinorialsociety.org
has never been criticized by the adversaries of my system and for a good reason, because
it is the most efficient form of electric machine that has been produced to this day. I have
shown that on such machines under favorable conditions an efficiency of 97% can be
obtained. In output per weight it can be equaled
(Fourth handwritten page)
by no machine whatever, direct or alternating. It also possesses the ideal feature of
running in absolute synchronism with the generator, while it has a good starting figure.
This is the type of machine you have seen and which the W. Co (assume Westinghouse
Company) propose to use for large units. You need not think that this form of machine
has not been thoroughly tried. This machine merely is equivalent to two or three
synchronizing machines coupled. A saving of expense and numerous practical
advantages of vital importance is the result, for large units, especially, it would be
utterly impossible for any system to compete with this. The advantages of this system are
so great that even had we today a perfect alternating current motor requiring two wires,
the system would have to be introduced just as soon as it comes to earning dividends on
the capital. The three wire system offered to the direct current distribution comprising
very small advantages, yet the three wire system was adopted. But what is recognized
merely an advantage in direct current distribution will become dire necessity in the
alternating system.
(The following written vertically in the left-hand margin of the fourth page)
Sincerely yours
N Tesla
Excuse haste
WHT/tmsxc
Visit our website: leslarnemorialsociety.org
•*
V
V
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Letter from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated March 12, 1893
Draft of text handwritten on Gerlach Family Hotel stationary (italics to show indistinct
writing or clarification and bold to show text underlining)
(First handwritten page)
New York, March 12 1893 (bold preprinted on Hotel stationary)
Dear Mr. Adams,
Although 1 have had exchange of thoughts with you in regard to your fav. (favor)
of Feb. 23 rd I consider it necessary to express myself quite clearly and by letter in regard
to that subject.
The patent of Thomson Nr. 363 . 1 86 , to which reference is made, has absolutely
nothing to do with my discovery of the rotating magnetic field and the radically novel
features of my system of transmission of power disclosed in my foundation patents of
1888. All the elements shown in the Thomson patent were well known and had been
used long before by a number of
(Second handwritten page)
experimenters. I. myself exhibited devices early in 1887, but I was not encouraged to
work in that direction as I found that the motor was very inefficient and that the
commutator and brushes caused trouble. 1 showed in my patents that alternating motors
could be run without the employment of a commutator and I produced an efficient and
practical motor, which I was able to run either on multiple or single alternating circuits.
In fact, one of the many reasons why 1 advocated the adoption of two phase currents
rather than three phase shown in my patents was, that a two phase motor was better
suitable for single or ordinary existing circuits and that it could be operated on these
circuits with fair efficiency, though smaller than that obtained by the use of multiple
supply circuits. Some engineers do not realize this even today.
As to the Bradley patents,
(Third handwritten page - on Hotel letterhead stationary)
to which reference is likewise made, I would think it fair to all concerned that a thorough
examination be made of their history and bearing. Such examination, which has been
made by myself without the slightest prejudice, will convince you that in the earliest
patent there is not the least hint of a method of transmission of power which would be
novel, or of devices which would not have been described before. As regards the later
patents they are plainly covered by my fundamental claims.
Engineers are beginning now to
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
(Fourth handwritten page)
notice that the earning capacity of an alternating plant with currents of more than one
phase is much greater and that we are forcibly driven to introduce in our alternating
systems of distribution multiple circuits. Some think that a perfect alternating motor, to
be on one single circuit, could satisfy all needs. In reality such a motor would have a
very limited value in a year or two, when, in consequence of competition the necessity
will rise to use more than one circuit. The direct systems had to go through such a
process merely for the sake of saving some copper, and their engineers had to make
extensive changes and considerably complicate the systems at that.
Yours sincerely
N. Tesla.
P. S.
Thanks for the clippings received.
WHT/tmsxd
Visit our website: teslam.emorialsociety.org
V V -#
TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
Note from Nikola Tesla to Edward Dean Adams dated March 22, 1893
Draft of text handwritten on 5 x 8 inch lined notepaper (italics to show indistinct writing
or clarification and bold to show text underlining)
(First handwritten sheet)
New York March 22, 1 893.
Dear Mr. Adams,
Your fav. (favor/letter) received. 1 forward copy of “Electrician” of Aug. 5.
The writers of these articles are absolutely unacquainted (that is they wes*e) with
some facts. For instance they do not know that by merely winding the motor in a certain
way absolute constancy of the field is obtained with two phases, so that it is the same as
far as this is concerned
(Second handwritten sheet)
whether there are two or a million phases. But the gravest error the Authors make is that
they express the belief that the constancy of field is important for the efficiency of the
motor. In my earlier work I thought so and constructed motors with many phases. You
will find in going over my writings and patents that I have before advanced all these
views, and what these writers state in this journal is merely a repetition of what I have
shown or stated. But I convinced myself that it is not im-
(Third handwritten sheet)
portant at all to have the field constant. The chief importance in an alternate current
motor rests upon the intimate magnetic connection between the field and armature coils,
as I have pointed out long ago. But even the closure of the magnetic circuit must be
influenced by practical considerations. For instance some of my first motors I made with
holes in the armature and field in order to close the magnetic circuit more completely.
This causes some disadvantages when the machine is worked
(Fourth handwritten sheet)
directly, also when it is operated from a transformer (more or less). We found that for
each motor, according to what it is built for, certain rules of construction had to be
followed. On this entire books can be written. Even presently there are perhaps one half
a dozen Engineers who know fairly well this subject.
Visit our website: lesIamemorialsociety.org
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I have to advise you to accept the two phase plan, though it would be much more
for my personal interest if you would decide for the three phase. I shall explain this to
you when I next have the pleasure of meeting you.
Yours sincerely
N Tesla.
Excuse in haste
WHT/tmsxf
Visit our website: leslam.emorialsociety.org
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
BOOKS
Commentary by William Terbo, Executive Secretary
A great deal has been written by and about Nikola Tesla from the time he arrived in
America in 1884, through his life and continuing to the present. The volume over time
has depended on his level of fame at each period in his life or in the more recent
recognition of the importance of his inventions and the intriguing aspects of his
philosophy and personality.
At the height of his fame from 1890 to about 1910, the volume was staggering. The
Tesla Collection (sponsored by the Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.) contains 4,500 pages of
unduplicated material covering the period from 1885 to 1920. As Tesla was a darling of
the popular press, the majority of items are from the ten New York daily and Sunday
newspapers. But also included is a wealth of serious and technical items from scientific
and professional publications. Nikola Tesla himself wrote at least 66 significant articles
and lectures between 1887 and 1934 plus the series of articles in 1919 that made up his
autobiography My Inventions.
In trying to sort out a relatively brief list of titles from my personal library of 100 or more
“Tesla” books. I’ve tried to organize them into categories from the earliest to the most
recent entries. For anyone wishing to write a biography, novel (or term paper) about
Nikola Tesla need only the following four titles to provide the basic “Tesla” research.
All have been published in many editions by many publishers in hard and soft cover, and
in the case of collections, by many editors. I’ve just taken First Editions or best editions.
© My Inventions, The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla, Ben Johnson, Editor, 1982,
Hart Brothers (111 pages). The series of six articles published between February
and October 1919 in the magazine Electrical Experimenter with a new,
informative and perceptive Introduction by Ben Johnson.
© Prodigal Genius, The Life of Nikola Tesla, John J. O’Neill, 1944, Ives Washburn
(326 pages). A mixture of fact and fiction with many acknowledgements but
without footnotes or bibliography to distinguish between the two. O’Neill,
Science Editor of the New York Herald Tribune, was also a believer in
spiritualism and psychic powers, rle rushed the book into print and suggested, in
a manner, that his friend, Tesla, also had such powers. This book, cited by many
later writers, is primarily responsible for much of the mythology that surrounds
Tesla’s name today.
® The Complete Patents of Nikola Tesla, Jim Glenn, Editor, 1994, Barnes & Noble
Books (535 pages). Almost more than you need to know with helpful
Introductions by Jim Glenn.
® Tesla, Man Out Of Time, Margaret Cheney, 1981, Prentice-Hall (320 pages). A
carefully researched work, both historically and technically, that caught the wave
of new interest in Tesla, the man. More than 200,000 copies in print and
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translated into a dozen languages including Japanese and Korean. (Ms. Cheney
is a member of the Society Executive Board.)
To write a new biography of the whole life of Nikola Tesla, one that will supplant
existing works such as Margaret Cheney’s Man Out Of Time, will require a prodigious
amount of research and dedication. The alternative is to address a situation in which
Tesla played a pivotal role - to create a dramatic “hook” upon which the author can find
a market for a new work that includes meeting the public thirst for more information
about this enigmatic, reclusive giant whose scientific contributions are becoming more
commonly known.
I have tried to make myself available to as many authors and playwrights as seek my
assistance. By doing so, I hope to correct some of the errors that have been perpetuated
by reliance on flawed research material. Currently, I’m dealing with at least half dozen
writers who are moving forward on Tesla projects. Whether any new books or scripts
from this effort will actually see the light of day is yet to be determined.
A number of new books have reached the market in the past year or two. Each relies on
a “hook” to include a major and necessary sketch of Tesla, his personality and his
participation in the subject at hand. While all include significant research on all aspects
of the theme being examined, some have occasionally fallen back on the “easy” Tesla
research described above. Among the most prominent are:
• Empires of Light, Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race To Electrify The
World, Jill Jonnes, 2003, Random House (416 pages). The “hook” is in the
subtitle. Ms. Jonnes treats Tesla very kindly and with great sympathy,
acknowledging every element of the Tesla AC system that won the day for
Westinghouse. She also deals directly with Edison’s obstructionism in defending
his DC system. Westinghouse is very favorably characterized as the (unusual)
model of a moral industrial tycoon. The book has been very favorably received
and an option has been let to a prominent screenwriter for a commercial movie
version. Capitalizing on the research for Empires, Ms. Jonnes is now writing a
history of the Pennsylvania Railroad.
® The Devil in the White City, Erik Larson, 2003, Crown Publishers (447 pages).
The “hook” is the creation of the 1893 Columbian Exposition “White City” from
the swampy Jackson Park. Nearby, a serial killer built a “World’s Fair Hotel”
where scores of young women were tortured, killed and cremated. Mr. Larson
examines the intrigue of Chicago politics surrounding the contracts for building
the “White City” and the detective work (albeit too late) for catching the killer.
The contest between General Electric and Westinghouse to light the Exposition is
a part of the story - and Westinghouse’s Tesla patent victory “helped change the
history of electricity.”
© Nikola Tesla, The European Years, D. (Dan) Mrkich, 2003, Commoner’s
Publishing, Ottawa (143 pages). Most Tesla writing deals with the romance of
his American years of invention, success and frustration with only a superficial
nod to his earlier years usually gleaned from his autobiography. Mr. Mrkich has
2
provided important new research that fills in details that Tesla omitted (or may
have chosen to ignore) in later writings. He has visited every site (and every
building, if still standing) and every source of records where Tesla lived, was
educated and worked. In addition to sites in the former Yugoslavia, these
locations include Graz, Prague, Budapest, Paris and Strasbourg. Among the new
information revealed was Tesla’s work in Maribor, Slovenia, where he worked as
a common draftsman during the time he was avoiding University and his parents.
I consulted with Mr. Mrkich and had the honor of writing the Foreword to The
European Years. (Mr. Mrkich is a member of the Society Executive Board.)
® Nikola Tesla, Tagebuch Aus Strassburg (Journal From Strasbourg), 2002,
Nikola Tesla Museum, Belgrade (251 pages, German and Serbian). The Journal
covers his correspondence with the Paris Edison Company (and an accounting of
every Mark and Franc spent) for the year in Strasbourg (1883-84) while Tesla
repaired the Edison lighting system, which had blown up in the presence of the
Kaiser at its dedication. The Journal shows that Tesla could be an effective
manager as well as a talented engineer. (The Society maintains a working
relationship with the Tesla Museum.)
© Executioner's Current, Richard Moran, 2002, Alfred A. Knopf (271 pages). The
story of how Thomas Edison’s contribution to the American criminal justice
system was born out of corporate greed. Edison’s attempt to make George
Westinghouse into America’s Dr. Guillotine is a damning contradiction of the
folksy image of this “Icon of Electricity.” While Tesla’s involvement in this
contest is minor, his technology is paramount. Recently, I listened to a long NPR
radio interview with Mr. Moran. When asked at the end of the interview what
other thoughts he had about his book, Mr. Moran launched into a laudatory
stream about his regard for Nikola Tesla. There is a contagion for writers when
confronted with the personality of Tesla.
® Harnessing the Wheelwork of Nature, Thomas Valone, Editor, 2002, Adventures
Unlimited Press (338 pages). A collection of articles (many not published
before) dealing with Tesla’s Science of Energy, with a lengthy Introduction to
correlate the collection.
Three additional books must be mentioned their current timeliness and value.
@ The Man Who Invented the Twentieth Century, Nikola Tesla, Forgotten Genius of
Electricity, Robert Lomas, 1999, Headline Book Publishing, London (248 pages).
The “hook” is the approach to Tesla’s life and business decisions through the
“money trail” and is ingenious and almost unique among the many other Tesla
biographies. Dr. Lomas lectures in Engineering Management, is a lifelong
enthusiast for Tesla and teaches his student how NOT to run their business
affairs.
© Tesla, Master of Lightning, Margaret Cheney & Robert Uth, 1999, Barnes &
Noble Books (184 pages). The Companion Book for the 90-minute PBS
television biography Master of Lightning and the best publication available for a
well-researched sketch of the complete Tesla. Illustrated with over 200 photos,
illustrations and drawings, all with authoritative dates and sources.
3
e Nikola Tesla, Guided Weapons & Computer Technology, Leland I. Anderson,
Editor, 1998, Twenty First Century Books (241 pages). Tesla’s patented
development of the first radio remote controlled device, a boat, demonstrated to
the public in 1899. The patent included one of the fundamental building blocks
of circuit and computer design, the computer AND gate. (Mr. Anderson is a
member of the Society executive Board.)
These are a few additional books and publications that deserve to be mentioned for
historical value or specific target audiences:
© Nikola Tesla , Memorandum book on the occasion of his 80 l11 anniversary, 1936,
Institute Nikola Tesla Foundation, Belgrade (520 pages). Birthday greetings
from every corner of the world and Proceedings of a Conference on Tesla
Technology accompanying the anniversary celebration. As an example, a portion
of the congratulations from Ernest Rutherford of Cambridge reads “I was greatly
impressed in my younger days by his experiments on high frequency currents. I
have often made use of the Tesla transformer as a method of producing high
voltages in my researches.”
® Lightning In His Hand, The Life Story of Nikola Tesla, Inez Hunt and Wanetta
W. Draper, 1964, Omni Publications (269 pages). A successful biography at the
low point of Tesla’s fame.
« Light and other High Frequency Phenomena , Nikola Tesla, 1893, National
Electric Light Association (114 pages). An original copy of an historic Tesla
lecture.
® Priority in the Invention of Radio, Tesla vs. Marconi , Leland Anderson, 1980,
Antique Wireless Association (article, 9 pages). Chapter and verse citing Tesla
priority through lectures, patents, experiments and the findings of the U.S.
Supreme Court.
® Nikola Tesla, Colorado Springs Notes 1899-1900, Scientific Commentaries by
Aleksandar Marincic, 1978, NOLIT / Nikola Tesla Museum, Belgrade (437
pages). Tesla’s notes organized, interpreted and defined by Dr. Marincic, former
Director of the Museum.
® Nikola Tesla, Correspondence with Relatives, 1993, Nikola Tesla Museum,
Belgrade (397 pages). English version, translated by Nicholas Kosanovich,
1995, Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. (200 pages). This book is of particular
interest to me as over one-third of the correspondence is between Nikola Tesla
and my father, Nikola Trbojevich, also a prominent scientist and inventor.
• The Streams of Lenard and Roentgen and Novel Apparatus for Their Production,
Nikola Tesla: Lecture before the New York Academy of Sciences - April 6,
1897, Leland I. Anderson, Editor, 1994, Twenty First Century Books (123
pages). A lecture that went far beyond the title with editorial discussion of
departures by Mr. Anderson.
® Nikola Tesla, A Spark of Genius, Carol Dommermuth-Costa, 1994, Lerner
Publications (144 pages). Latest and best of a number of Tesla biographies for
younger students.
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o Tesla, Tad Wise, 1994, Turner Publishing (381 pages). “A biographical novel of
the world’s greatest inventor.”
e Wizard, The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla, Marc J. Seifer, 1996, Birch Lane
Press (542 pages). In addition to a biographical narrative, Dr. Seifer, a noted
handwriting expert, examines the stress of relationships between Tesla and many
of his business contemporaries. 1 consulted with Dr. Seifer and had the honor to
write the Foreword to Wizard.
® Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application To
Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power, Leland I. Anderson,
Editor, Sun Publishing (237 pages).
© Inventors And Discoverers, Changing Our World, National Geographic Society,
1988, National Geographic Book Service (320 pages). “Three Giants of
Invention. Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell and Nikola Tesla, with some
of the inventions that changed our world”.
There are many other lesser books, novels and plays that feature Nikola Tesla in one
sense or another. I want to single out one last item: a play successfully produced in
Manhattan to excellent reviews. The play was mounted with full cast, staging, theater
and a firm price of admission. (Some costs of the production were offset by a grant from
the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.)
• Tesla’s Letters, Jeffrey Stanley, 1999, Samuel French (72 pages). A play in 2
acts.
William H. Terbo Edited 6 January 2005 © 2003 WHT/tmsuf
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
PRINCIPLES OF THE TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC. REGARDING
COOPERATION, SPONSORSHIP AND ENDORSEMENT
First, it is important to emphasize the serious nature of the Society’s mission as stated in
our 1979 organizational document, repeated in our papers of incorporation in 1980 and
summarized in the footer attached to much of our correspondence. The Society operates
through voluntary contributions and donations and on honoraria given for appearances,
interviews and technical support to various domestic and international media.
The Society cooperates with a very limited number of other organizations that promote a
similar respectful appreciation of the man, Nikola Tesla, and his accomplishments. The
Society has sponsored a limited number or projects that support important elements of
our mission and that do not compromise our ethical standards. We have not “endorsed”
any person or group promoting any product or theory, regardless of how meritorious they
may seem. This saves us the difficulty of sorting or categorizing products and ideas as
serious science, parascience or psuedoscience.
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc., my position in the Society and quite often my direct
relationship to Nikola Tesla appear on at least 50 websites. This generates a great
number of letters and phone calls. Almost without exception they are a pleasure to
receive and are an indication of the progress we’ve made in restoring Tesla’s name to the
prominence deserved. (I am often humbled by the degree of respect accorded to me
through the accident of my closest blood relationship, grandnephew, to Nikola Tesla.)
The Society is usually unable to prevent any person or group from linking Tesla’s name
to whatever they are promoting. His name is an important part of history. We can only
try to prevent the improper use of the Society’s registered corporate name or my own
personal name without authorization whenever we or I become aware of such use. (An
example concerns the unauthorized use of a form of the Society’s name: “Tesla Memorial
Society of New York.” This user is in no way connected with the Society and the Society
is not responsible for any claim, promise or representation made by that entity.)
The Society always appreciates being made aware of any instances of the misuse of the
Society’s name or representations made in the Society’s name.
2004/2005
WHT/tmsty
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
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i. qi| —I (!pf ■ -|| -1—I, n.n n hi Hi hi Hi H| H|H| Hi Hi Hi H H
Hi hi h. hi Hi*Hi
Letter to Mrs. Alice Terbo, wife of Nicholas J. Terbo (Trbojevich)
nephew of Nikola Tesla.
Hotel Pennsylvania, N.Y.
November 20, 1928
Mrs. A. Trbojevich
71 Glendale Ave
Highland Park, Mich.
My dear Mrs. Trbojevich,
Your husband - my nephew - is a man of genius and learning who
is straining every fiber to carry out successfully some of his ideas
which will bring him fame and fortune. Surely, you must be proud of
him for what he has is worth far more than millions and a title.
Being near him you may perhaps not realize that he is in a dan¬
gerous state of overwork brought on gradually through years of con¬
centrated effort. Under such conditions nothing will do him as much
good as the unceasing care of a loving wife.
Possibly things are at present not just as you would like to have
them, but your husband is sure to acquire great wealth and when his
battle is won you will have everything to your heart's desire.
With kind regards and good wishes believe me.
Very sincerely yours,
N. Tesla
: --*** 2 ? ^
without a thought of any ccKapansatloo. it was not easy but I finally
had It In perfect running condition. I was as tool shod whan ha gave
m& twenty dollars and wished that I had cocao to America years be¬
fore. the next day I was thrilled to the narrow by rooting Edison
who began my aSwracss wixsss ties then end there. 1 wanted to
have xay shoes shined, something £ considered below my dignity.
redisoTi saids ^TPtelja-p you will ahjgsg the shoes yo urse lf scd i f fa* it*
He Impressed ro tremendously* 1 shined my shoes and liked it.
I began the waste far which I was engaged insaodiately end after
n ine toon the of strenuous effort I fulfilled my contract rigorously.
The manager had prowl sod me fifty thousand dollars but when I de¬
manded payment* he merely laughed* *¥ou are still a Parisian*”
remasbed Mi son* *«!*§» you become a full-fledged American you will
appreciate an Aror&ean Jobe. 1 ’ i felt deeply hurt as I bad expected
to use the money in the development of my alternating system an d
when soro people proposed to fora a company under my name*I accepted
eagerly, here was the opportunity I had vainly sought for years but
my now friends were adamant in their resolve not to have anything
to do with the worthless alternating c ur r en ts which Edison condemned
as deadly. They do aired an arc light ays torn and I had to comply
with their request though the delay of my charishod plans was agon¬
izing. In one year of day and night application* I managed to per¬
fect the system which was adopted for lighting the city and some
factories in the neighborhood. Then came the hardest blow I ever
received. Through some local influences* I was forced out of the
company lasing not only all usy Interest but also wy reputation aa%
Goginflttr and Inventor* After that X lived through a year of terri-
bin heartaches and bitter tear®, »$r suffering being intensified by
oft to rial vent* Yery often I was compelled to work as a Mtmm
and «y high education in various br&nehes of sfdenco, mechanics and
literature mmM to ae like a mockery. Finally, I had the good
fortune of meeting two capable and honest men who listened to me
and came to my assistance. They organised a ootnpony, provided a
laboratory and gave me a modest but sure financial support. I
perfected my motors quickly having nothing else to do except to
Car*y out plans I had formed years before. By inventions proved
a success and attracted the attention of Oeorge westlnghouse. Be
was, in my opinion, the only man on this globe who could take wy
alternating system under the circumstances then existing and win
the battle against prejudice and money power. He was a pioneer
of Imposing stature, one of the world** true noblemen of whoa
America may well be proud and to whom humanity owes an immense
debt of gratitude.
I have to add that in all toy troubles I did not neglect to
declare my intention of becoming a cltlsen of thin glorious country
and in due course I secured my paper® making too a proud and happy
man.
Kikola 3&ela
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.Inly 20 , 1931
Tesla at 75
(Sir front cover)
On Nikola Tesla's birthday in mid-
July, the electrical term which his name
has becoriie is regenerated as a tall, mea¬
gre. eagle-headed man. Reporters hunt
him out of his hotel cubicle for his yearly
interview and for a day his long-standing
fame Hares again. People who all their
lives have lived by means of the devices
he has invented and inspired, people who
have forgotten there were an Alessandro
I'd lla, an Andre Marii Ampere, a Georg
Simon Ohm, a Charles Augustin tie Cou¬
lomb, a Luigi Ciihani or a James Watt,
are reminded that there still is a Nikola
Tesla (pronounced Teshlnh) who long ago
gave them the Tesla induction motor
which made alternating current practical,
and the Tesla transformer which steps up
oscillating currents to high potentials (r.5.-
000,000 volts he avers, with 100,000.000
possible).
Last week was Dr. Teslass 75II1 birth¬
day. Inter viewers wished they might see
him as he used to he seen in his Colorado
laboratory a generation ago. strolling or
sitting like a calm Mephistopheles amid
blazing, thundering cascades of sparks 30
it. long. Tesla currents alternating at such
prodigious frequency that they would not
harm a kitten. But instead they found
him. not without some difficulty, in seclu¬
sion on the -’Oth tloor of Manhattan's
Hotel Governor Clinton. I’ale but healthy,
'thin to ghastliness but strong and alert as
ever, he received his callers in quiet. His
hair is slate grey, overhanging eyebrows
almost black. His eyes are blue. Only
their sparkle and the shrillness of his
voice indicate his psychic tension. He
wore an ordinary U. S. business suit, a
white collar-attached shirt and a common¬
place tie.
To Nikola Tesla, all the world's a power
house. Tor 40 years he has been reasoning,
calculating and arguing that the earth has
a definite electrical resonance. All that
men need do to have unlimited power at
their command, and (hat |xiwer without
the necessity of transmission wires, would
be to generate electricity in tune with the
earth’s. The generators might be at water¬
falls, coal mines, anywhere. Only possible
drawbacks would be the vast expense of
installation and the fact that every power
house oil earth would be obliged to gener¬
ate the same kind of current, and anyone
could tap the current. There could be no
financial control of electricity.
Nonetheless the late John Pierpont
Morgan believed in (he jsossibility of suclt
wireless power. That was at the time when
Mr. Morgan was creating U. S. Ste"l Cnrp.
..and International Mercantile Mar''ie. tie
was not averse to world control of power
and communications. (The House of Mor-
.ggn is banker for American Telephone &
".Telegraph, International Tclrp , "u; &
Telegraph, Western Union. United Corp.,
and many another electrical utility.)
Banker Morgan gave Genius Tesla great
amounts of money for experiment. In
Colorado in 1899, Tesla built a huge in¬
duction coil by which he generated and,
he says, sent out wireless waves the same
year Marconi established wjrelcss commu¬
nication between Prance ant! England.
Tesla claims priority, because he con¬
ceived his system six years garlier. in 1S95.
The theoretical pally if Tesla's waves were
through the earth.'not through the air as
Hertzian waves go. On Long Island. Tesla
built a steel tower 1S7 ft. high surmounted
by a 68-ft. bossed dome. The tower was
to disseminate wireless power. Mr. Mor¬
gan died in 191,5. Dr. Tesla lacked money.
He abandoned the tower, let it he de¬
stroyed in 1917.
Since then he has been pondering his
theories. His annual interview has. been
a rehash of the same old subject—Broad-,
casted Power. But last week lie made a
"rare occasion" of his 75th birthday and
talked about something new.
‘T am working now upon two things.”
he said. "first, an explanation based upon
pure mathematics of certain tilings which
Professor Einstein has also attempted to
explain. My conclusion in certain re¬
spects differ ft*mi and to that extent tend
to disprove the Einstein Theory. . . . My
explanations of natural phenomena are not
so involved as his. They are simpler, and
when 1 am ready to make a full announce¬
ment it will he seen that 1 have proved
my conclusions.
"Secondly, 1 am working to develop a
new source of power. When I say a new
source, I mean that 1 have turned for
power to a source which no previous sci¬
entist has turned, to the best of my knowl¬
edge. The conception, the idea when it
first burst upon me was a tremendous
shock.
"It will throw light or, many puzzling
phenomena of the cosmos, and may prove
also of great industrial value, particularly
in creating a new and virtually unlimited
market for steel.
"I can only say at this time it will come
from an entirely new ami unsuspected
source, and will be for all practical pur¬
poses constant day and night, and at all
times of the year. The apparatus for cap¬
turing the energy and transforming it will
partake both of mechanical and electrical
feature?, and will be of ideal simplicity.
"At first the cost may be found too high,
but this obstacle eventually will be over¬
come. Moreover, the in-i.ilmcnt will be.
so to speak, indestructible, and will con¬
tinue to function for any length of time
without additional expenditures.
"Let me say that has nothing to do with
releasing so-called atomi. energy. There
is no such energy in the sense usually
meant. With my current-, ti-ing pressure-
as high as 15.000.000 volts, the highest
ever used. 1 have split atoms—but no
energy was released. I conic.-- that before
I made this experiment I was in some fear.
I said to my assistants. I do not know
what will happen. If the conclusions of
cer.zin scientists are right, the release of
energy from the splitting of an atom may
mean an explosion which would wreck our
apparatus and perhaps kill someone. Is
that understood?'
"My assistants urged me to perform
the experiment and 1 did .-o. I -haltered
atoms again and again. But no appreciable
energy was released."
Badgered to reveal hi- own secret
"source of energy." Genius Te-I.i politely
evadedadl questions, promised a definitive
stattetnent "in a few months, or a few
years."
Vet he already has conceived "a means
that will make it possible for man to
transmit energy in large amounts, thou¬
sands of horsepower, from one planet to
another, absolutely regardless of distance.
"1 think that nothing can be more im¬
portant than interplanetary communica¬
tion. It will certainly come some clay, and
the certitude that there are other human
beings in the universe, working, suffering,
struggling, like ourselves, will produce a
magic effect on mankind and will form
Tesla Sparks & ArntoR
Tin v wonhl not Ihiriii n kitten.
V
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A • • X»C.OC-..M* 0 t P , '
7 *_• 30 *etd abov* the sea
. ..„,, ded'ca*ed to riding,
q^If c-id healthful rec-
?eo*-cm . . .Virginia Hlor^
$ r ' ^ gt ii the perfect
^o*ri for the ditcrim-K
"a* ->.g American tom- ■
% 1 . for the delightful
* oca* on season.
^h* restful informal-
'*> c* the social life -in-^
tne distinctive Horne-.;;''rj
t*rod completes the
cho'm of th**i all-season
p c'adise . ... Summer
cc* 4 ages are available
*?' 4 he season.
^•r'ope Summer fern-
rrrcfure 66 Degrees
The New Pictures
A Woman of Experience (RKO-
Talhc). Formula for spy stories: a shady
lady enters government service in war¬
time and is assigned to make friends with
an enemy spy. She also falls in love with
an aristocratic naval officer. The crisis
comes when she saves the life of the naval
officer by outwitting the enemy spy. Few
spy stories vary this formula greatly. .1
U iniuni of Experience varies it not at all.
Spy stories are currently favored by pro¬
ducers as a measuring stick for actresses
r fvho seem capable of being built up into
a resemblance to Greta Garbo {Mysteri¬
ous Ludy) Helen Twelvet roes is charm¬
ing. low-voiced, auburn-haired, but she
lacks the exotic numbness.of Garbo. Mar¬
lene Dietrich rt til. Her quiet and intelli¬
gent acting leaves the melodrama plausible
but not exciting.
The Secret Call (T a ra mount") is mainly
notalilc liecuusc its leading lady. Peggy
Shannon, is Iwing publicized a< the smles¬
sor to illy C’lara llow. whom she replaced
in this picture when Actress bow became
‘'iiulis|K)scd.” ’
Sto.irl Walker, able technician of Indi-
i»ia|>olis and Cincinnati stock companies,
has handled the story wcH but shows his
unfamiliarity with the cinema liv not niuv-
'« CUV 5. A*J0f»S6N V : ; S
Director
I
QUOTES
A (By I. C. M. Brentano, 1931)
There are three aspects of Tesla's work which particularly
deserve our admiration: The importance_of the achievements
in themselves, as judged by there practical bearing; the
logical clearness and purity of thought, with which the _
arguments are pursued and new results obtained; the vision
and the inspiration, I should almost say the courage, of
seeing remote things far ahead and so opening up new avenues
to mankind.
B (By Lee DeForest, inventor of the radio and telephone
amplifiers, the triode, etc., in acknowledging his career
inspiration, 1931)
For no one so exited my youthful imagination, stimulated my
inventive ambition or served as an outstanding example of
brilliant achievement in the field I was eager to enter, as
yourself. Not only for the physical achievement of your
researches on high frequencies which laid the basic
foundations of the great industry of radio transmission in
which I have labored, but for the incessant inspiration of
your early writings and your example, do I owe you a special
debt of gratitude.
C (By Dr. B. A. Behrend, scientist, 1931)
To those of us who have lived through the anxious and
fascinating period of alternating-current power
transmission, there is not a scintilla of doubt that the
name of Tesla is as great here as the name of Faraday is in
the discovery of the phenomena underlying all electrical
work.
D (By science editor and publisher Hugo Gernsback, 1931)
If you mean the man who really invented, in other words,
originated and discovered - not merely improved what had
already been invented by others - then without a shade of
doubt Nikola Tesla is the world's greatest inventor, not
only at present but in all history. His basic as well as
revolutionary discoveries, for sheer audacity, have no equal
in the annals of the intellectual world.
*
*
*
THE NEW YORK TIMES ,
JANUARY 13, 1943
#!$']
cant, as were his researches, ahd
discoveries in radiations, material
streams and emanations. •
Alter his discovery ol t system
of < transmission • of. power, without
wins and a high-potential magnify¬
ing transmitter. Tesla had been
chiefly engaged—since 1901—in .the
development of & system of teleg
raphy and - telephony, and design
ing a plant for the transmission of
power without wires; to be erected
at Niagara.
As early as 1908 Tesla made It
known that her wa s e x pe rim e nt ing
with Interplanetary comm unic a tio n.
He firmly believed that moat of the
planets are inhabited .and - that
messages could, he sent between
the- earth: and Mars, Jupiter and
Venue.
He also had visions of harnessing
the sun's rays and of utilizing the
energy of the sea.
„ Son of. Greek Clergyman
NikolaTesla was.boraat Bmlljan
Lika; a border country of Austria-
Hungary; on July-10, . 1856. His.
father yraa a Greek clergyman and
orator; and hiemother, Georgina
Mandlc; waa an Inventor.
His-,education •. began .with ..one
year .In elementary, school : and then;
four years of the lower Raalattrale
at tiosplc. Lika;. Then he went to si,
.being-graduated In-1873. He studied;
2,000 ARE PRESEHT
AT TESLA FUNERAL
Cathedral of St.John the Divine
Is Scene of Yugoslav State
Function for Scientist
GRE AT IN SCIENCE ATTEND
Ambassador Fotitch Heads the I
Procession of Mourners—
Bishop Manning Assists
Inventors, Nobel Prize winners,
leaders in the electrical arts, high
officials of the Yugoslav Govern¬
ment and of New York, and men
and women who attained distinc¬
tion in many other fields paid trib¬
ute yesterday to 1 Nikola Tesla,
father of radio and of modern elec*
trical generation and transmission
systems, at an impressive : funeral
service in the Cathedral of St John
the Divine.
The service, conducted in Serbian
by prominent priests of the Serbian
Orthodox Church; was opened .and
closed by Bishop William T. Man¬
ning,- assisted-by-Father -Edward
West Sacrist of the Cathedral.
The Serbian Orthodox Office for
the Dead was said by the Very
Rev. Dushan Shoukletovlch, rector
of the Serb Orthodox Church of St
Sava, who officiated in the name
of the Serbian Orthodox Church
in America. '.
City Is Represented
More than 2,000 persons attend¬
ed the service. The city was repre¬
sented by Newbold Morris,. Presi¬
dent of the City Council, who
headed the list of honorary pall¬
bearers. Other honorary pallbear¬
ers Included Dr. Ernest F. W. Alex-
anderson of the General • Electric
Company,, inventor of .t he A lcx-
anderson alternator; Professor Ed¬
win H. Armstrong of Columbia
University, - Inventor of frequency
modulation and many other Im-
NIKOLA TESLA RITES
TO BE HELD TUESDAY
l'ngoslatf Government-in-Exile
Plans Official Stale Ftmeral
Nikola Tcsln, father of radio and
of the modem electrical transmis¬
sion systems, who died Thursday
night nt the Hotel New Yorker at
the ape of 86. will receive aiv.of-.
TicinT stnfc funcraTtindcr the aus¬
pices of the Yugoslav Government-
in-Exile, it was announced last
night by the Yugoslav Informa¬
tion Center. i
The service will be held in the
Cathedral of St. John the Divine
on Tuesday at 4 P. M. Meanwhile,
the body will lie- in state at the
Campbell Funeral Church, Madi¬
son Avenue and Eighty-first
Street. [
Yugoslavia, where Dr. Tesla was
born of Serbian parents, will be
officially represented by Ambassa¬
dor Constantin Fotitch and many
present and former high officials
of that country. Among them will
be Dr. Ivan Shubaahich, Governor
of Croatia; Dr. Bogoljub Jevticb,
former Prime Minister of Yugo¬
slavia; Branko Chubrilovich, Yugo¬
slav Minister of Food Supply and
Reconstruction; Franc Snoj, Min¬
ister of State representing the
Slovenes, and Dr. Tesla s nephew,
Sava Kosanovitch, president of the
Eastern and Central ^European
Planning' Board, representing the
Yugoslav, Czechoslovak, Polish and
Greek Governments.
Dr. Tesla; who held more than
700 basic patents, is regarded as
the man who laid the foundations
for modern radio broadcasting and
television ; for the giant electrical
transformers-and other transmis¬
sion apparatus, and forrtha basic
apparatus that makes \ possible
neonUghts and fluorescent illumi¬
nation. : . A _ .
To the end of his days Dt- Teslai
claimed that the Marconi*system
of wireless telegraphy was an in^
fringement on his fnethod and ap-<
paratus ■ for transmitting ^energy
without vhrea. Dr. Tesla br oyBht
suit agalAst. Marconi In an effoj
to gain : legal recognition* of . ni
claim. He blamed his failure^to
establish his patent rlIghtsJo 1die
paucity of technical knowledge^
QUOTES
A (By I. C. M. Brentano, 1931)
There are three aspects of Tesla's work which particularly
deserve our admiration: The importance of the achievements
in themselves, as judged by there practical bearing; the
logical clearness and purity of thought, with which the _
arguments are pursued and new results obtained; the vision
and the inspiration, I should almost say the courage, of
seeing remote things far ahead and so opening up new avenues
to mankind.
B (By Lee DeForest, inventor of the radio and telephone
amplifiers, the triode, etc., in acknowledging his career
inspiration, 1931)
For no one so exited my youthful imagination, stimulated my
inventive ambition or served as an outstanding example of
brilliant achievement in the field I was eager to enter, as
did yourself. Not only for the physical achievement of your
researches on high frequencies which laid the basic
foundations of the great industry of radio transmission in
which I have labored, but for the incessant inspiration of
your early writings and your example, do I owe you a special
debt of gratitude.
C (By Dr. B. A. Behrend, scientist, 1931)
To those of us who have lived through the anxious and
fascinating period of alternating-current power
transmission, there is not a scintilla of doubt that the
name of Tesla is as great here as the name of Faraday is in
the discovery of the phenomena underlying all electrical
work.
D (By science editor and publisher Hugo Gernsback, 1931)
If you mean the man who really invented, in other words,
originated and discovered - not merely improved what had
already been invented by others - then without a shade of
doubt Nikola Tesla is the world's greatest inventor, not
only at present but in all history. His basic as well as
revolutionary discoveries, for sheer audacity, have no equal
in the annals of the intellectual world.
■
Nikola Tesla’s Father: Milutin Tesla (1819 - 1879 )
classic were lost, he would recover it from memory! His most prized book was
the 236-page Sluzabnik, printed in Venice in 1517, by Bozidar Vukovic from
Podgorica, a book printer of great craftsmanship. After Milutin’s death, Djuka
kept the book; after her death, Nikola took it with him to New York, and had it
restored; and after Nikola, the book passed into the hands of his nephew, Sava
Kosanovic who, in 1950, as Yugoslavia’s Ambassador to the United States,
presented it to President Truman. This rare “Book of the Serbian Liturgy” is
now on display in the Harry Truman Library in Independence, Missouri.
By 1859, there were five children in the Tesla family: Dane, born in 1848,
Angelina in ’50, Milka in ’52, Nikola in ’56, and Marica, born that year.
“Our priest has children above all children," the Smiljan Serbs
said.
■:>, The first-born, Dane, in the words of his younger brother,
was “gifted to an extraordinary degree.”
The Tesla house was a busy place. There were endless
visits by parishioners, relatives, passers-by, visiting both
Milutin and Djuka, who was a spinner, seamstress and
embroideress of renown; blind guslars stayed for days,
singing heroic ballads. These were the happy years.
Milutin even indulged in some wit and yielded to
small vanities. Nikola wrote the following:
“Amongst the help there was a cross-eyed man
called Mane... he was chopping wood one day. As he
swung the axe, my father cautioned him, Tor God’s
sake, Mane, do not strike at whatyou are looking, but
at what you intend to hit..’ On another occasion he
was taking out for a drive a friend who carelessly
permitted his costly fur coat to rub on the carriage
wheel. My father reminded him of it, saying, ‘Pull in
your coat, you are ruining my tire.’ He had the odd
habit of talking to himself and would often carry on
an animated conversation, and indulge in heated
argument, changing the tone of his voice. A casual
listener might have sworn that several people were in
the room.”
He once absent-mindedly asked his servant, “Whose
cows are these?" only to be told, "Father Tesla’s.” Another time,
Djuka was drying some newly-thrashed wheat, left it unattended,
and a cow came and fed on it. She was upset at this waste of grain,
but Milutin said, “Djuka, our cow ate our wheat.”
For services Milutin had rendered some Moslems, a Bosnian Pasha sent him
an Arab stallion. Milutin rode it when visiting more distant families. The horse
was easily panicked. On one occasion, startled by wolves, the beast threw
Milutin off, and galloped home, but was smart enough to retrace his steps and
bring the rescue party to meet the abandoned rider. The 15-year old Dane was
in charge of grooming the horse, and one summer day, in 1863, it cost him his
life. This is how Nikola described it:
“This horse was responsible for my brother’s injuries from which he
died, 1 witnessed the tragic scene and altho fifty-sixyears have elapsed since,
Senj, to perform his pastoral duties, and stays for many monthsdmthe/stqny myyisualiiMijgsstanofithaslostnoneofitsforce.... ......
church perched on asleep cliff.” B * e d ; only steps away from the church and the
On Easter Monday 1852, Milutin responds on the back of the Tesla family would never be the same,
and adds a post script, “Forgive me, I have no paper” ) 10 P e ' , a ? d to avoid looking at that fresh grave,
year, he writes, “Justice sits on the throne, andlaw courts wh “ e Mdutm would be the pastor of the omon-
we were under the Ottoman Porte...” But, “By God! NothinM Martyr George for the next sixteen years. The seven-
as my church and my forefathers’ law and custoni, and ® • bel1 nnger mourning the loss of his brother, and of
liberty, well-being and advancement of my people and forests or bmiljan. •
these two, the church and the people, wherever I am, I’ll hls P ar , lsh w0 *> tau « l * t the ° rthodox rell g Ion “ * c
myli £ e » to ~C*lbcttl%^odsri^r0Mess and less, and at a relatively young age, came to be
In mid-September 1852, after nearly five-and-a-half yeifs M Mjluhiv.^^WjtkM^an He was on exceptionally good terms with the local
and Djuka put their three small children, and few possessil&P \ and "ot ufrequently, the two pastors would attend
for the 75 kilometre trek over the Dinaric mountains, bacS%l#®i|im^ t | e f f Mf S* But watching his now only son in his timorous
new destination - the pastorage of St. Peter and Paul in Smiljan - tlw place oft ^kwardnessj gllileiessness, extraordinary sensitivity, and ambitions which
sweetbasils e ,1 o n Gi ^ Utli tjip kriQvvn arid the; famiiiar and did not b°de well for a rattonal
Thewhitechurch,atthefootoftheBogdanicmountain,besidetheVaganac ! , 111 X ha P p >' Hfe j“?^5!^ danC i inM u ilUt , i , n ’ SV K iCe M- 1 . , , .
running brook, was built in 1765, on the foundations of an older cnurM!i«lfe Wanf6UiNikbl£t6 follow a church calling, but Nikola was determined to
the church, there was a fine wooden house for the family. fWfeW. % ttjclujucian, or an electrical engineer. And there was nothing
) ilutin Tesla was bom in Raduc, county Medak, Lika, on February 19
i (OS), 1819.The Serbs came to Raduc from around Knin in the 1690s,
3 having arrived there from western Serbia, via Hercegovina.
The name Tesla denotes either a trade, as tesla is Serbian for adze— a small
axe with a blade at right angles to the handle — or a physical characteristic,
such as protruding teeth, prevalent in the Tesla family. The name Tesla is also
found hi Ukraine. In Roman times, there was a place near Raduc, called
Tesleum. Milutin’s father, Nikola, was born in 1789, and during the Napoleonic
wars, when Krajma was part of the newly-formed French Province of Illyricum,
was a sergeant in the French army. He married Ana Kalinic, from the
family of Colonel Kalinic, who is mentioned in the Raduc military
records for 1735 and 1754; sometime after 1815, and the return
of the old Austrian order, he moved to Gospic.
Nikola and Ana had two sons: Milutin and Josif, and three
daughters: Stanka, Janja, and one whose name has not been
remembered, but might have been Deva.
Milutin attended the German-language public school;
then, together with his brother, went to the Military
Officers’ Training School; but the military profession,
with its discipline and drills, did not suit him and,
following a reprimand for not keeping his brass
buttons bright enough, he left, and enrolled in the
Orthodox Seminary in l’laski, completing his studies
in 1845, as the foremost student in his class.
In 1847, Milutin married Djuka Mandic, from
Gracac, and was ordained by Bishop Evgenije
Jovanovic, who appointed him, first, to be in charge
of the church hi Stikad, and from there, on April 30,
1847, sent him to Senj on the Adriatic coast The young
pastor was expected to strengthen the congregation
of some forty households, and represent Serbs before
the "foreign and Catholic persons.” Milutin was paid 200
forints per year, and an additional 40 forints toward
lodging, but these sums were barely enough to make ends
meet.
Milutin was “a head taller” than his congregation, of pale,
serious visage, high cheek bones, sparse beard, and a talented
speaker and preacher. For his sermon “On Labour” he was awarded
the Order of the Red Sash. He was a fine penman, and wrote many
letters, some of which have been preserved.
On July 20, 1848, he writes to the local military commander, Major
Froschmeier von Scheibenoch, requesting thathe allow Serb soldiers to attend
the Orthodox Church services on Sundays: his request was transmitted to the
Governor of Croatia in Zagreb for a final decision, and the Commander
continued to send all soldiers to the obligatory Roman Catholic mass—“holding
our clergy as nothing,” noted Milutin Tesla..
Poor material circumstances were compounded by ill health.
“It is impossible to preserve one’s health here.... , he writes to the Bishop. In
mid-August 1850, he is so ill, that his brother-in-law, Toma Mandic, comes to
SttS3BaaSGSR2*K^
subscribed to publications, and began to write articles for,the S'mMi'dim - Mtf«!8 W W SRF t0 adu dlood ~there would be ten - children of
of Novi Sad, Srbobran in Zagreb, Serbo-Dalmalf&n magazine'mZadar.signihg,.-’ W*W^^® e ” l 7ff? on8S f ^ “A^^ndnte an engineer a medical
his name, variously, as “T”, "M.T.”, "MilutinTesla, Pastorbf erf’
of the Upper Karlovac”, “Pastor in Smiljan”, and mB*B)ed¥«l^ltttfdHe^l. uns R?, G Mffl^ t li:i3P dd ‘ ed ‘? n April 17(OS) aged60years,
pseudonyms, said to be Rodoljub Srbic and Rodoljub Pravjcic, j “ d “S" was « lv P“ * fun , era I lturg J flt for a ’ “ d ™ s
In 1855, in the Diary, he writes, “Lika is, according to its ttr&ory fill'd- " ^ Whe " ^ momentof burial came -
populace,large,andismadeupofonlyScrbs,orifyoulike,ofSerbsandCroats, * *.. ” ~
of Orthodox and Catholic faith. In Lika, there are more Serbs of Orthodox
than of Roman Catholic faith.” But he also notes, “Except for the clergy and
merchants or tradesmen, here and dicre, hardly anyone knows how to sign
his name in Serbian.”
He wanted to build a Serbian-language school in Gospic. In the Dairy of
March 10,1857, he writes, “Serbs in Croatia do not have High schools, teachers’
colleges, or any other public places of learning: The sons Of this poor people
are not able to attend distant schools...” But all his efforts to improve the lot of
the people were met by a wall of poverty, want of learning, and foreigners’ [
political agenda.
Milutin had a large library, consisting, not only of clerical books, but also of
current belles-lettres in Serbian, Croat, German, Italian and French. He recited
verses with ease, and liked to say, in good humour, that if such and such a
the sun came out over the leafless cemetery, as it would burst forth during the
funeral service for his son, many years later.
There are no surviving sermons of Milutin Tesla. His birth house in Raduc
was burnt down in 1941. The Serbian villages in the “Medak pocket” were burnt
down by Croats in 1993. The Church of St. George the Martyr in Gospic was
demolished in 1992. The house and church in Smiljan, extensively renovated
in the years after 1863, were burnt down in 1941; rebuilt in the 1980s; partially
burnt down, and vandalized, in 1992; and now stand empty. 530 Smiljan Serbs
were massacred in 1941; and the remainder, said to be eleven people, were
ethnically cleansed in 1995. The little graveyard, where Dane was buried, is
overgrown with weeds. The running brook dried up years ago.
The closest living descendent of Milutin Tesla is his great-grandson, ’William
Terbo, who is American-born.
D. Mrkich, 2003
- : -
Nikola Tesla’s Mother: Georgina-Djuka Tesla (1822-1892)
The mother’s loss grips one’s head morepowetfidly
than any other sad experience in life.
—Nikola Tesla, in a letter to Jack Morgan, Nov.21,1924
(SKg© iltola Tesla, the man who “invented the 20th century,”
^|E/&4has been declared, variously, as an Austrian, a
Q3S*«S*o/ Hungarian, an East European, Slav, Yugoslav, Croat, and
a Serb — which he was by birth, heritage and his human con¬
sciousness.
Tesla’s mother, Djuka, though always described accurately
enough as an unlettered, but extraordinarily gifted woman, has
been sometimes spoken of as a Croat. There was a tendency in
the former Yugoslavia to look for unifying factors which would
help bring its diffrerent nationalities closer together; thus, a
certain political task fell on both the mother and son.
Djuka was bom in Tomingaj (“Tomo’s woodland” - so named
after her great-grandfather), a daughter of Nikola Mandic (1800-
63), a reknown Serbian Orthodox priest
in Gracac, and a grandaughter of Toma
Budisavljevic (1777-1840), a priest, who
was also a military commander, a
cartwright, and a fine bookbinder. She was
the eldest of eight children. Her mother
became blind when Djuka was 16, and she
looked after her seven siblings, until her
marriage to Milutin in 1847.
Djuka and Milutin Tesla had five
children: Dane, Angelina, Milka, Nikola
(1856-1943) and Marica. All three girls
married Serbian Orthodox priests.
Nikola, the fourth child, was born on St.
Vitus day, June 28 (OS), or July 10,
according to the modern calendar, “at the
stroke of midnight”, during a summer
storm. The village midwife, afraid of
lightning, said, “He’ll be a child of the
storm”, to which the mother responded,
“No, of light."
Nikola was christened the very next day, by the priest from
nearby Gospic, Toma Oklobzija; the godfather was Jovan
Drenovac, a Captain in the Krajina army, also of Gospic. This
baptism, within twenty-four hours of birth, with the priest
coming to the house, instead of the child being taken to the
church, is believed to have been due to the seeming poor health
of the infant. Village lore also has it that the child’s heart was
beating on the right side of his chest.
There is no photographic likeness of Djuka.
Nikola Tesla wrote:
“My mother was indefatigable, and worked regularly from four
o’clock in the morning till eleven in the evening. From four to
breakfast time... I never closed my eyes, but watched my mother
with intense pleasure as she attended... to her many self-imposed
duties.... After breakfast, everybody followed my mother’s
inspiring example... and so achieved a measure of contentment.”
He also wrote, “I must trace to my mother’s influence whatever
inventiveness I possess... My mother was especially gifted with a
sense of intuition... an inventor of the first order and would, I
believe, have achieved great things, had she not been so remote
from modem life. The dexterity of her hands was such that she
could tie three knots in an eyelash, when she was past sixty.”
Djuka invented several labour-saving devices and home
appliances. Her exquisite home-spun, embroidered travel bag,
which Nikola kept all his life, may be seen in the Museum in
Belgrade (see inset picture).
Smiljan was a busy parish, and the Tesla home a busy
household. Village women, who still cooked over open hearths,
and lit dimly their hovels with a flax string in tallow in a hollo wed-
out turnip, came to see what the priest’s wife had in the way of
needlework, tapestries, embroidered towels and feathered
pillows, came to seek patterns and dyes and pieces of fabrics,
came to seek food in hungry years: garbed in perpetual black
from their thirties on, they sat, and sometimes whispered, re¬
arranging their kerchiefs, then wiping their faces with the hem
of their long skirts. Rare was a family which had not lost men in
wars, or children to disease.
Nikola’s older brother, Dane, died in the summer of 1863, at
the age of fifteen, following a fall off a horse.
Djuka woke up Nikola, and whispered, “Come andkiss Dane.”
Then she put him back to bed, and said, with tears streaming
down her face, “God gave me one at midnight, and at midnight
He took away the other one.”
That year, the family moved from Smiljan to Gospic.
When he was in his early 20s, Nikola developed a passion for
gambling, and at one point, in the summer of 1878, after he had
lost everything at cards, Djuka gave him a roll of bills, and said,
“Go and enjoy yourself. The sooner you lose all we possess, the
better it will be. I know that you will get over it.”
Milutin Tesla died in 1879.
Of Djuka’s love for Milutin, the following anecdote has
remained: some time after Milutin’s death, a certain priest, Pepo
Milojevic, who had wooed her, when they were both young, said,
on meeting her, “Eh, Djuka, if you’d married me, you wouldn’t
now be a widow.”
To which Djuka responded, “I would rather be Milutin Tesla’s
widow, than Pepo Milojevic’s wife.”
Djuka continued to live in the same apartment in Gospic, with
her brother, priest Petar, who had succeeded his brother-in-law
as the pastor of the Church of Great Martyr George. Nikola, who
was to go to the United States in 1884, also
helped support the family.
In February, 1892, Nikola was in Paris,
giving a series of highly acclaimed
lectures, when he received the following
telegram from uncle Petar:
Your mother on death bed. Hurry if you
WISH TO SEE HER ALIVE.
He cancelled further lectures, and
rushed to Gospic.
“You’ve arrived Nidzho, my dear,” Djuka
said, when he came home, and the joy of
seeing him worked the miracle of
temporary recovery.
But not for long.
Night after night, Nikola sat by his
mother’s bedside, until he was in such a
need of sleep, that on Good Friday, he was
taken to a house two blocks away, to get
some rest.
Nikola later wrote, “When I was alone
in b ed, I mediated on what would happen
if my mother were to die. Would there be a disturbance in the
ether?... I was sure that she would think of me to her last breath.
I struggled desperately against sleep and, with my senses
sharpened by the darkness and stillness of the night, I watched
intently.... Then nature prevailed, and I fell into a sleep or swoon.
When I regained consciousness, an indescribably sweet song
filled my ears and I saw a floating white cloud in the centre of
which my mother was reclining, looking at me with loving eyes,
her smiling face illuminated by a strange radiance unlike ordinary
light, and grouped around her were figures like those of
seraphims. Spellbound, I watched the apparation as it passed
slowly across the room and disappeared from sight. In that
instant, a feeling of absolute certitude swept over me that my
mother had just died and, sure enough, a crying maid came
running who brought this mournful message.”
Djuka died on Easter Saturday, April 3, 1892, and was buried
the next day, beside Milutin, in the Jasikovac cemetery in
Divoselo. Six priests officiated at the burial. There was a large
funeral procession, and a multitude of wreaths, including one
each, from: children, brothers and sisters, grandchildren, nieces
and nephews, and the citizens of Gospic.
From Gospic, on April 21, Nikola writes to his uncle Pavle, in
Varazdin: “I am immeasurably sad, but console myself the best I
can. I had long anticipated this sad event, but the blow,
nevertheless, was heavy I always hoped that mother would live
longer, because she was strong, and mine and my uncles’
successes were a strength to her....”
Nikola raised individual tombsones of white marble, and of
the same height and likeness, to each of his parents. On Djuka’s
stone was written:
Djuka Tesla
Wife of Priest Tesla
Whether Milutin’s and Djuka’s tombstones have been spared
by recent wars is not known. Most clergy families in Lika were
related by blood. All together, within the Mandic - Tesla families,
between 1750 and 1941, there were 36 Serbian Othodox priests.
The Second World War found six priests serving in the parishes
in Lika. One died of natural causes, while the other five were
killed by Croat fascists, together with 530 Serbs of Smiljan. By
now, most of the churches in which the Mandic and Tesla priests
served, have been burnt down, or lie in ruins. Djuka Tesla’s birth
house in Tomingaj, although “under the protection of the state”
from 1945-91, was allowed to decay, and may or may not still be
standing.
D. Mrkich, 2003
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MR. TESLA SPEAKS OUT . \
To th« Editor of The World:
Permit me a few word? of comment
relative to The World editorial-of Oct;
21 in which I am directly ooncorned). ,
EJdia.pn’e work on the lnc%ndeacei>t
lamp and direct-current «T«tem.oMIlv J h»V«--» , plear Idea of the situation,
trlbutlon was more like the ;perfoi^^Mri.‘V*..*w ~~ __
Oifc'dpufit, In all that tmceaelnf and
(IpidXinlng ahcmtlng from the house¬
tops .any voice raised to apprlte people
Of ihk real state of things la like the
•fjtorp- (bt-a little eparrow In the roar of
’ iafWa7 . So It cornea that very few
im. j
no i
lem |
ed? |
)me |
lave i
itlle ‘
hell. 1
field j
Tirh ;
nor. j
rr
ance of an extraordinarily •ehergfctl^j
and horse-sensed pioneer than'jthat' ^
an Inventor ; h it was prodigious lb-
amount, but not creative. Thp,.l&mj)
Itself, consisting of a carbon filament
In an exhausted globe, was well, known-
and even patented years, befdre.
Crookes had employed Incandescent
conductors with leadlng-in platinum-
wires sealed In the glass and obtained
extremely high vacua; the multlple-iro;
arrangement was frequently s'h^wn. it•
institutions of learning, display Wlx^'
dows and exhibitions with ■ Oelssl^ 1
tubes; electric generators' had ibeen 7
constructed, means for regulating • cur-.
rent and voltage described, and canali-'
nation of electricity was as obvious as
that of water, gas, compressed air or
other commodity.
Irrespective of this, however, his
primitive scheme of lighting was sub-
: Ject to fatal economic limitations and
j could have never proved a commercial
success in competition. Indeed, during
the past thirty-five years It has been;
almost w'holly displaced by a more
practical and efficient system based on
my rotating magnetic field, a. discovery
which even hard-headed engineers and
patent lawyers have declared to be “one
of the greatest triumphs of the human
mind." To convey an Idea of the ex¬
tent of Its use T only , need to quote
Dr. B. A. Behrend, one of the foremost
electrical experts, who In his book on
the Induction motor says: "Were we
to eliminate from our Industrial world
the results of Mr. Tesla’s work the
wheels of industry would cease to turn,
our electric trains and cars would stop,
our towns would be dark, our.mills,
dead and Idle. So far-reaching is this
work that It has become the warp and
woof of industry." > • - -
Edison and his associates bitterly op¬
posed the Introduction of my system,
raising a clamor against the ‘‘deadli¬
ness” of the alternating current, which
proved very effective and led to the
adoption of a commercial type of ma¬
chine in the electrocution of criminals,
an apparatus monstrously unsuitable,
for the poor wretches are not de¬
spatched in a merciful manner but lit¬
erally roasted alive. To the observer
their sufferings seem to be of short du¬
ration; it must be borne In mind,
though, that an Individual under such
conditions, while wholly bereft of the
consciousness of the lapse of time, re¬
tains a keen sense of pain, and a min¬
ute of agony Is equivalent to that
through all eternity.
Had the Edison companies not finally
adopted my invention they would have
been wiped out of existence, and yet
not the slightest acknowledgment of
my labors has ever been made by any
of them, a most remarkable Instance of
truth, my system has not' only
• energy for all purposes
tj&QUghpVii the World but also revo-
.iuilonlrid. ?electrlc lighting and made
titjiiwwft ■commercial success by reduc-
coat of power and Increasing
•nbrmously the distance of trnnsmla-
iion; The greater part of the $60,000.-
000,000 -which, according to President
itiboyer'a,;- etatement, represented the
jjtjue.pf electric business, can be traced
t6Vbay;;»jrstem and Its effect on the
apd other Industries, in view
W^il^s^J^.eel that I also have done
mucti’;*;-to dispel darkness. Surely, my
:^$teprf more Important than the
lnceindesceht -lamp, which Is but one of
jthelcnowh electric Illuminating devices
and admittedly not the best. Although
gTeatly Improved through chemical and
metallurgical advances and skill of ar¬
tisans, It is - still Inefficient, and the
glaring filament emits hurtful rays re¬
sponsible for millions of bald heads
and spoiled eye*. In my -opinion, It
will soon fce superseded by the elec-
txod&ess vacuum tube which I brought
olit -thirty-eight year* ago, a lamp
much more economical and yielding a
light of indescribable beauty and soft- j
ness. The technical resources of that!
time were inadequate to make it a
practical success, but most of the dif¬
ficulties will be overcome when cheap
quartz glass becomes available.
No amount of praise Is too much to
bestow upon Edison for his vigorous
pioneer work, but all he did was
wrought in known and passing forms.
What I contributed constitutes a new
and lasting addition to human knowl¬
edge. Like his lamp, my induction
motor may be discarded and forgotten
in the continuous evolution of the arts
but my rotating field with its mar¬
velous phenomena and manifestations
of force will live as long as science
Itself. NIKOLA TESLA.
New York, Nov. 5.
the proverbial unfairness i.nd ingrati¬
tude of corporations. But the reason
is not. far to seek. One of their promi¬
nent men told me that the-, are spend¬
ing $10.000.000 every year o keep Edi-
Mor’s nnrm- before fh*> public, end lie
r'h'-fV 4 . !* S v rv*-* rr>' ••• V- th^Pl
The Mote and the Beam
To the Editor of The World :
The United States Senate by resolu¬
tion condemned the conduct of Sen¬
ator Bingham “as contrary to good
morals and Senatorial ethics." But the
venerable gentlemen fail to perceive
that the Tariff Bill which the Senate
baa under consideration is also con¬
trary to good morals and good ethics,
because it is planned to take money
out of the pockets of all the consum¬
ers to benefit a few of the producers
by artificially Increasing prices of food,
clothing, materials, medicine, «5«•.. Inci¬
dentally, the bill Is bad for business, lor
when It is enacted into law It ■will fur¬
ther limit the limited purchasing power
of the people, thereby curtailing pro¬
duction and bringing about unemploy¬
ment. j
By the way. what has become of the
good, old-fashioned Democrat* who j
used to w’rite in the party platforms, I
"Protection is robbery”? Vvili the sur- !
vivor? please rise, or al least ral*.e ihrir ■
voices. JOHN J rn AN.
Tni** Not l.
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Les Drysdale
32 Hoover Grs.
Hamilton, Ontario.
Canada L9A.3HI
Mr. William H
21 Maddaket
Scotch Plains
NX
07076 USA
Dear William
T kmfe y$m im the. yeas have provided' me on Micpla Tesla and yourself.
It was a valuable asset in coming up with an interesting monument. I did manage
to speak to Oidario Power Generation and The Stratford festival theatre gave me
access to their wardrobe warehouse in order to get the clothing accurate. 1 drought
you might be interested in the fruits of my labor. I have sent you a copy of the
photo X took of my concept drawing along with the outline X submitted. I hope you
approve. The project is entirely funded and organized by The St. George Serbian
Orthodox Church of Niagara Falls. Thank you again.
Les Drysdale
Sculptor '
The Nicola Tesla Memorial Pro feet
The Sculpture I have designed is a realistic and historically accurate image of Nicola Tesla and a
depiction of his most significant and recognizable invention, a polyphase AC motor.
My research which has included several hooks, among them ‘ Master of Ti ght Bring 7 and ‘A man
Out of Time’ by Margaret Cheney, speaking with representatives of Siemens Wesiinghouse,
Ontario Power Generation, The Niagara parks Commission, and correspondence, with William H.
Turbo of the Nicola Tesla Society, who is also Tesla’s Great nephew*. I’ve also been to consult
with the Stratford festival costume department to erasure-the accurate depiction of the. dotfesg of
the era. All of this has given me great insight and a firm grasp of his character and
accomplishments, which will he reflected in the .sculpture.
\
wJP
Description of Sculpture and Concept
Tesla would be sculpted, as be would have appeared in 1S96, age 39, about the time his
inventions were being used to create The Niagara Falls Power station. His appearance would
reflect the clothing of the time, in particular that which would he unique to Tesla himself,
I have chosen to depict Tesla, tali slender and elegantly attired, facing and w alkin g towards the
fells. He is pausing and in the process of creation. As the story goes, the idea for the AC motor
was drawn on the ground during a wait with a friend. I have adapted tins story by cre ating a
natural pathway on which Tesla is walking. My intention is to show the ‘mystery that Is his
mind’, developing an abstract idea from the theoretical to the concrete, as most of his inventions
were developed entirely from start to precise completion in his head. Tesla is drawing three sine
waves that are out of sync by-120 degrees (iris revolutionary idea that created AC electricity). The
waves he is drawing flow out and into the real foundation beneath him, the AC motor, as- does
the idea become the foundation of every motor and generator to this day.
Sight And Placement
The sculpture has been designed specifically for the intended site. At 13ft din in total height and
12ft In length it will stand out both as an striking monument to an incredible man and also blend
harmoniously with the landscape. The orientation is such that both pedestrians and automobile
traffic will enjoy the foil impact of the piece. The dynamic nature of the figure in motion with
wind blown Prince Albert Jacket combined with the parous mass and intricate forms of the
motor machinery, encourages and Invites closer inspection which is the sculptures purpose, to
celebrate, inform and educate the public about this amazing man and his accomplishments.
The outside housing of the motor has a large flat surface on which an informational inscription
can be placed describing Tesla's involvement with power generation at the falls. On the backside
l plan to inscribe the following quote, which is inspiration for the entire concept. “The
possibilities of wilt power and seif control appeal tremendously to my vivid imaginati on ... Until
finally my will and wish become identical. They are so today, and in this lies the secret of
whatever success 1 have achieved. My imaginings were equivalent to realities.”
Tesla 1915
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Niagara Falls - February 1, 2005
MAJOR ART COMPETITION
NIKOLA TESLA MEMORIAL SCULPTURE PROJECT
p eorge Serbian . Orthodox Church in Niagara Falls, in partnership with The
Niagara Parks Commission (NPC), undertakes a competition to create a significant
to .. r ^' kola T f sia w,thin the NPC’s Queen Victoria Park. The proposed
a* tn EL * t‘ I be «. a ^ culpture u of Nlkola Tesla, positioned within Queen Victoria Park so
as to have Tesla poking at the falls". The project will be completely financed by the St
George Serbian Orthodox Church in Niagara Falls and its various Canadian and
9 nnR n fho n i a in P th artnerS ' The P r °P° sed date for completion of the project is the 10 th of July
2006, the 150 anniversary of Nikola Tesla’s birthday.
timewafnart oMh! 1 ! midni9h * on Jul * 10 . 1856 in Smiljan, Lika, which at the
time was part of the Austro-Hunganan Empire. Inspired by a drawing of Niagara at the
age of eleven Tesla stated that he would come to Niagara Falls and harness its power
* ?. 4 ene 7![- ln 1893 ’ the Nia 9 ara Falls Power Company, financed by
Morgan, Vanderbilt and Astor, approved a proposal for a power project at Niagara Falls
which was completely based upon Tesla’s polyphase alternating current technology for
both generation at Niagara, and transmission and distribution to Buffalo The first
Niagara power station, designed by Tesla and using his technology, was a joint effort of
the Niagara Falls Power Company, Westinghouse, General Electric and the Canadian
Niagara Power Company and went into operation in August 1895. In short Tesla is
responsible for harnessing the enormous potential of both falls, eventually giving him
5? di , SCOverer and inventor of the Princip.es and machines that
created the modern electncal system.
This two-phased, juried competition is open to all. Phase I will require the
submission of a current CV or r§sum£ along with up to 10 images of work to date
These submissions must be made by March 15 th , 2005.
Phase II will see up to 5 artists selected to submit detailed drawings and/or plans
for the finished work. Artists so chosen will also be asked to submit a budqet
which includes cost of fabrication and delivery. A nominal fee of $500 Canadian
™/l«T e . P , a,d ^ or Pbase ** submissions. These submissions will be due by Mav 31 st
2005. We anticipate the awarding of the commission by June 15 th , 2005.
Phase I submissions are due, postmarked no later than March 15 th , 2005 and must
be mailed to:
Nikola Tesla Memorial Project
P.O. Box 1579
Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario LOS 1 JO
Canada
The full text of the Competition Brief can be emailed or posted to you.
For further information, contact the Project Selection Committee Chair-
Bill Auchterionie
Phone 905 935-3514 or oniakara@svmpatico.ca
• • •• >.
: ■ ■■ : ; ' ■ '' - :
. • kmm ■ t my • ' *t ' : '■ *« - : ’
31 MAY 2005
PROPOSAL SUBMISSION DEADLINE
15 JUNE 2005
25-6 JUNE 2005
1 FEB 2006
MAY-JUNE 2006
LATE JUNE 2006
EARLY JULY 2006
SELECTION COMMITTEE AWARDING MEETING
PUBLIC ANNOUNCEMENT OF WINNER
DELIVERY OF MONUMENT TO NIAGARA FALLS
SITE PREPARATION
MONUMENT INSTALLATION"
MONUMENT UNVEILING
GUIDELINES
PHASE I
Phase I will require the submission of a current CV or resume along with up to 10
images of work to date. These submissions must be made by March 15 th , 2005
All artists will be notified, by mail, of the results of the Phase One competition.
Submissions by unsuccessful candidates will be mailed in the SASE provided by the
“*** ^ Commission rese ™ the -W* <° refuse
Please provide a SASE (Self-Addressed Stamped Envelope or Package) for submission
o^eTubmissic^^^e%L S ^ 0nSib ' llty t0 pr0Vide desired packaging for the return of phase
maNed ^ ubmissions are due - Postmarked no later than March 15 th , 2005 and must be
Nikola Tesla Memorial Project
P.O.Box 1579
Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario LOS 1 JO
Canada
PHASE II
Phase II will see up to 5 artists selected to submit detailed drawings and/or plans for the
imshed work Artists selected by the jury for Phase Two will be provided with a copy of
an Agreement to Propose. Upon receipt by the Project of a signed copy of the ^
® ach . adist wil1 be P aid a f®®- Artists so chosen will also be asked to submit
* £ht 9 nlw!^ n fJ i udeS |f ost u of . fabncatlon and delivery. A nominal fee of $500 Canadian
will be paid for Phase II submissions. These submissions will be due by May 31 st , 2005.
FINAL SELECTION
We anticipate the awarding of the commission by June 15 th , 2005 The Selection
Committee will make a recommendation to the Niagara Parks Commission Board of
3
-3
. 1 ■
■
.
' " J
- C;
NATIONAL ARTS CENTRE
CENTRE NATIONAL DES ARTS
CENTRE
OTTAWA, CANADA
ARTS
ARTISTIC DIRECTOR
MAIN STAGE SERIES
AFTER THE ORCHARD
September 15 to October 1
THE DONNELLYS: STICKS & STONES
November to to 26
I AM MY OWN WIFE January 12to 28
CROWNS March 2to 18
THE REAL THING May 11 to 27
STUDIO SERIES
THE DUMB WAITER and THE ZOO STORY
October 25 to November 5
EARSHOT February 14to 25
BRILLIANT! The Blinding Enlightenment
of Nikola Tesla March 21 to April 1
recovery April 18 to 29
FAMILY THEATRE SERIES
RAVEN STOLE THE SUN and
CARIBOU SONG December 10 and 11
GEORGE AND MARTHA January 21 and22
BENEATH THE BANYAN TREE April 8 anc
SPECIAL PRESENTATION
PORTRAIT OF AN UNIDENTIFIED MAN
July 12 to 23, 2005
SUBSCRIBE TODAY!
613-947-7000 ext 620
toll free 1-866-850-AKTS ext 620
www.nac-c na.ca/s ubscribe
COVER photo © by Brian Bailey/Corbis. Breds ge cssse fcw-Ptoe* £ fee
fg| MARCH 21
F] toAPRILl
N The acclaimed touring
!■ ’ production illuminates
i s the Nation’s Capital!
RECOVERY
by Greg MacArthur
directed by David Oiye
set and costume design
by Kim Nielsen
lighting design by David Fraser
original music and sound design
by M arc Desormeaux
\
with a cast of six including
Kate Hurman, John Koensgen,
Jeff Lawson and Alix Sideris
written, directed and performed
by Kim Collier, David Hudgins,
Kevin Kerr and Jonathon Young
set design by Andreas Kahre
costume design by Mara Gottler
lighting design by Adrian Muir
video design by Amos Hertzman
with Electric Company
sound design by David Hudgins
with Electric Company
An Electric Company Theatre a
(Vancouver) production ‘ 3
Around the world, people are
succumbing to the addictive
pleasures of a mysterious new
substance. Society is threatened,
But not to fear, They are taking
care of everything...
An NAC English
Theatre production
Commissioned by the ■
NAC English Theatre
In the nineteenth century, men like Nikola Tesla envisionei
an electric new world, but sometimes reality couldn’t live
up to their dreams. A fascinating portrait of the inventor
of the alternating current, breathtakingly staged in a visui
stunning electrical storm of images, action and ideas.
Visually stunning, quite literally dazzling
its audience with brilliant thunderbolts”
The Scotsman
PHOTO: A scene from Brilliant!,
photo by Tim Matheson
New work b’
most excitir
Paranoia
contagio
Photo: Corbis Images
October 19, 2005
MEMO to Jeff Behary
Dear Jeff:
First, let me thank you for new material you’ve sent a couple of weeks ago, particularly
the complete list of dad’s patents. I’ve used it in detail in preparing a more
comprehensive biography of Dad.
I’m enclosing a floppy of several items you may wish to use on your website along with
hard copies of each document with suggested edits if you wish to use the item.
Two small corrections on the copies of items from your website that you enclosed with
the patent list: Dad’s anglicized first name is Nicholas (not Nikolas) and the name of our
Society is Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. (the “Inc.” should be included in the name the
first time it is mentioned in any new item - it doesn’t have to be included each time the
Society name is repeated in the body of an item. The “Inc.” is important to protect our
registered name - as opposed to Vujovic’s sham outfit, TMS of NY.)
These are the items I’m sending you of the floppy and/or as hard copy:
Nikola Trbojevich biography (WHT/vy). It’s written as a NY Times obituary and
I’ve suggested some edits on the hard copy to convert it into a biography. The
postscript at the end may be used elsewhere if you wish.
Pupin 150 th Anniversary (TMSsw2). You may use this as you wish and edit out
the specifics relating to the TMS and myself.
Terbo/Trbojevich Pupin connection (WHT/tmssu2). You may use this in any way
you wish (or just keep it on file). Both Pupin items appear on the TMS website.
Tesla DVD cover letter (TMSvx). I sent you the DVD in August but hadn’t
composed the cover letter at that time. We want the DVD to have as wide usage
as possible without asking profit to the Society. Our web master Dave Sica is
handling something about it on our website - but feel free to advertise it on your
website - including steaming the entire thing. Just give credit as the letter
indicates. (Streaming on our website may be too time consuming for our use.)
Photo of Nikola Trbojevich (glossy). I’m not sure of the date but I make it to be
about 1936 at 50 years of age. Please scan it and return the photo ASAP -1 have
only two or three of the first generation glossies!
Let me know how youultimately use these items. If you have any questions, just call.
Best Regards, Bill
TMSwb
7 <+>s"
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC G^> .
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
DAN D. MRKICH, 1939-2005
It is with great sadness that the Tesla Memorial Society announces the passing on
Wednesday, August 31, 2005, of Mr. Dan Mrkich, an active, honored and respected
member of the Society Executive Board. While he was never a smoker, he succumbed to
lung cancer first diagnosed on December 23, 2004. He fought and worked to the end.
Mr. Mrkich combined lifelong careers of diplomat and author. Born in the former
Yugoslavia, he came to Canada at the age of 19. He worked as a steelworker and
lumberjack before gaining his university degree. This was the background that served
him so well as both trade negotiator and author.
Mr. Mrkich retired in 2004 from the Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
International Trade. On February 25, 2003 he was awarded Her Majesty Queen
Elizabeth IPs Golden Jubilee Medal for having made “a significant contribution to
Canada.” Mr. Mrkich’s responsibilities for international trade required extensive travel
in pursuit of Canada’s trade interests. This gave him a much broader access to the
nuances of the many different nationalities and societies with which he came in contact.
Mr. Mrkich was the published author of nine books ranging from biographies and
histories to popular fiction plus numerous articles and other contributions. He was a
talented wordsmith and a tireless researcher. Book subject matter ranged from the
biography of actor James Dean’s boyhood to the romance of life in northern Canada.
Mr. Mrkich’s interest in Nikola Tesla far exceeded the normal ethnic connection of
people of similar Slavic backgrounds. As an eighth-grader he attended the same High
School (Higher Real Gymnasium) attended by Tesla. And for one year he lived in the
same little house where Tesla had lived 85 years earlier. His 2003 biography Nikola
Tesla, The European Years addresses this early formative part of Tesla’s life and
professional career so regularly overlooked by the many other Tesla biographers.
The Tesla Memorial Society wishes to express its most sincere condolences to Dan’s
wife, Susan, his sons Alexander and Soren and his daughter Astrid. On a purely personal
basis, I want to tell Susan and his grown children of the loss I feel. It is beyond that of a
colleague but as a dear friend with whom I’ve worked so closely these several years.
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary September 2, 2005 TMSvr2
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is anon-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety. org
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
FAX COVER SHEET
Date: October 4, 2005
Pages: 3 This cover (tmsvw) plus Dan Mrkich, 1939-2005 (tmsvr2) & Principles
Of The TMS Regarding ... (tmsty)
To: Senator George Voinovich, U.S. Senate, Ohio
Fax Number: (202)228-1382 Phone Number: (202) 224-3353
Urgent For Review Please Comment (2) Please Reply For Information Only (1)
From: William H. Terbo
Fax Number: (732) 396-8852 (voice coordination preferred)
Phone Number: (732)396-8852
Subject: (1) By your correspondence, I know you have been reading the
serialization of Dan Mrkich’s book Nikola Tesla, The European Years as published in the
American Srbobran. I regret to inform you of the passing of my friend and colleague. (I
had the honor of writing the foreword to European Years. If you would like a copy of the
book as published, you need but ask.)
Message: (2) I’m sure that you will wish to speak of Nikola Tesla from the floor of
the Senate at some time well before the 150 th anniversary of his birth in July 2006. I
would be happy to craft appropriate remarks for you to use. Just choose the facet(s) of
his life or accomplishments on which you would like to focus and tell me how many
minutes would be appropriate.
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary TMSvw
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in
continuous operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great
electrical scientist and inventor, Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural
activities, participates in appropriate academic conferences and provides a source for an
accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The Society is a non-political,
non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated in
1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
NIKOLA JOHN TRBOJEVICH (NICHOLAS J. TERBQ) 1886-1973
Mathematician, inventor and perhaps the best-known gear expert of the modern age of
the automobile, Nikola Trbojevich passed on December 2, 1973 at the age of 87 in Los
Angeles. Mr. Trbojevich, also known socially as Nicholas J. Terbo, was the holder of 68
U.S. patents and a similar or greater number of foreign patents. -T he caus e of - death w as—
^eptieerrha-and-Gardieva-seulctr--eolkpse- Surviving Mr. Trbojevich were his wife Alice
Sinclair Hood (1891-1977) and his son William H. Terbo.
Mr. Trbojevich was a nephew of the great electrical genius Nikola Tesla “The Father of
Alternating Current.” He was the last survivor of a group of ten nephews and nieces
borne by Tesla’s three sisters. Both the Tesla and Trbojevich families were of clerical
backgrounds, priests in the Serbian Orthodox Church. Tesla and Mr. Trbojevich were the
only members of the extended family to pursue technological careers and the only ones to
come to America.
Mr. Trbojevich’s most notable work that brought him international recognition was the
invention of the Hypoid gear. First published in 1923, it was a new type of spiral bevel
gear employing previously unexploited mathematical techniques. The Hypoid gear is
used on the great majority of all cars, trucks and military vehicles today. Together with
his invention of the tools and machines necessary for its manufacture, the Hypoid gear
became an integral part of the final drive mechanism of automobiles by 1931. Its effect
was immediately apparent in that the overall height of rear-drive passenger automobiles
was reduced by at least four inches.
Other inventions of Mr. Trbojevich are in the fields of steering gears, worm gears,
universal joints, positive displacement liquid pumps, gauges, and gear cutting and
grinding machines. Many of these inventions found important commercial and industrial
use. His Gleason gear shaping machinery, invented and produced in the late 1920s is in
use to this day. His reversible worm steering gear innovation was the first of its type to
allow a car’s steering mechanism to return to center after completing a turn maneuver.
His inventions for angular and linear differential gauge block systems are in common use
as measurement masters in factories throughout the world. His final patent (1967), for a
nuclear reactor, was held in application form for many years because of its defense
sensitivity.
Nikola Trbojevich was born on May 21, 1886, in the town of Petrovoselo in the Austrian
county of Lika in the Austro-Hungarian province of Croatia (later Yugoslavia, now the
Republic of Croatia.) His father was the Very Reverend (Prota) Jovo Trbojevich, at the
time building a new Serbian Orthodox church in Petrovoselo, later to assume the post
held by his father Very Reverend Danilo Trbojevich as Prota for the entire county of Lika
based at the Trbojevich ancestral home at Medak. His mother was Angelina Tesla, eldest
sister (by six years) of Nikola Tesla and daughter of the Very Reverend Milutin Tesla of
Smiljan and later at Gospic, the county seat of Lika.
Nikola was the third of five children with two older brothers and two younger sisters. As
was expected, the eldest son, Pero (church name Petronius), became a Serbian Orthodox
priest rising to the highest rank, Arhimandrit (Archbishop), without offspring and
breaking the family clerical connection with Lika. The other siblings also became
professionals with careers away from the provincial county of Lika. The second son,
Uros, became a lawyer and senator, representing Vojvodine nearer to Belgrade, older
sister, Mica, became a medical doctor and director of the Woman’s Hospital in Belgrade
and younger sister, Marica, a teacher at the upper school level.
After completing his primary schooling in Lika, Mr. Trbojevich was sent to Budapest for
eight years of Gymnasium (middle and high school) continuing to the Royal Technical
University, graduating in 1911 with the degree of Diploma Engineer. By the time young
Nikola had arrived in Budapest, Tesla was a world-known personality. Whether by
design or natural ability there were strong parallels in the professional careers of Mr.
Trbojevich and the uncle thirty years his senior.
After serving two years as an assistant to the Chief Engineer of the Royal Hungarian Post
Office telephone department Mr. Trbojevich was offered a post as intern at the Western
Electric Company in Chicago with postgraduate courses at Northwestern University.
(His mother wrote very much as an older sister to her younger brother, Nikola Tesla,
“Please be good and pay strict attention if you intend to do some good; help the boy in
your firm. I know this would be the best school for him. He would be happy and at
peace.”) He arrived in March 1914, but the position at Western Electric lasted a very
short time as the war in Europe began. His Austrian citizenship interfered with the
national security aspect of the American telephone system and forced Mr. Trbojevich to
change direction toward the mathematics of gear design.
Mr. Trbojevich joined the Illinois Tool Works as an engineer from 1915 through 1920
where he developed his specialty of gear design and received his first U.S. Patent (issued
in 1920). As the principal consumer of gears is the automobile industry, he moved to
Detroit in 1921 and became an independent inventor and consultant. The four patents
that define the radical design of the Hypoid gear (U.S. 1,647,157) and the method of
forming and cutting it (U.S. 1,465,149-1,465,151) were issued in 1923 and 1927. The
reaction was exceptional. Several years were devoted to inventing the dozens of design
details for the Gleason machinery necessary to cut the geometrical shapes of the gears.
Nearly a dozen patents were issued to Mr. Trbojevich to secure the Gleason equipment.
In 1921 Mr. Trbojevich married Alice Hood of Evanston Illinois, the daughter of William
Hood a commodities dealer, investor and member of the Chicago Board of Trade. Miss
Hood had already established a business career in Chicago at the time. When they settled
in Detroit they anglicized the difficult Trbojevich name to Terbo for social and her
professional reasons. Of course, Mr. Trbojevich’s name was already established in his
profession and was never changed. He received his U.S. citizenship in Detroit on March
21, 1922. Their first son John (Jackie) was born in 1924 followed by William in 1930.
Tragically, Jackie died in a fall in 1937. This was an unfortunate parallel to the Tesla
family, who lost Nikola’s older brother, Dane, in a fall at a similar age.
■*
During the 1930s Mr. Trbojevich concentrated on improvements in automotive steering
mechanisms, constant velocity universal joints and various implements to aid in their
manufacture, areas intimately associated with American car and truck companies. Many
of his improvements appeared on vehicles of several of the major marques. He was
issued about two-dozen patents during the decade for novel equipment and concepts.
Mr. Trbojevich’s success and wide reputation changed his relationship with Nikola Tesla
from that of uncle and nephew exchanging information of family matters to that of
colleagues. They wrote and visited regularly and commented and assisted on some of the
complicated technical problems they each faced. (After Tesla’s death in 1943, Mr.
Trbojevich cooperated with his cousin, S.N. Kosanovich, another nephew of Tesla and
after the war Yugoslavia’s first ambassador to the United Nations, in directing Tesla’s
thousands of pieces of memorabilia to be placed in a new museum in Belgrade.)
Although Mr. Trbojevich worked with a number of major firms at that time, he retained
his independent status until World War II became imminent. His familiarity with
automotive drive systems and the specialized machinery necessary to manufacture them
made his talents appropriate for the conversion to military vehicles.
After the war, he faced many of the problems other inventors face: his own earlier patents
were cited against his new patents in his areas of expertise. This made a decision to
become a professor at the Lawrence Institute of Technology in Detroit a more practical
path. In 1960 Nicholas and Alice Trbojevich (Terbo) retired to Los Angeles where their
son William was involved in the missile and space industry.
< Fo r mor e- in fefmati€rn-eontactr^ fc>
William H. Terbo
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
(732) 396-8852
Postscript: The lack of progeny in the direct line following Nikola Tesla and his three
sisters is remarkable. The ten nephews and nieces mentioned above produced only six of
the next generation, five of which are descended through the Trbojevich line. Of these
six only William Terbo, son of Nikola, and Jovan Trboyevic, son of Uros, survive to this
date. I have often commented that while most family trees are shaped like a Christmas
tree, Tesla’s family tree most resembles a telephone pole!
October 2005
WHT/vy
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
MICHAEL IDVORSKY PUP1N - 150 th ANNIVERSARY OF HIS BIRTH
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc., its Executive Board and members join with all people
who value the scientific and technological advances that have created the modern society
in which we live in honoring the birth of Michael Pupin.
Michael Pupin, inventor, humanitarian and philosopher, is best known in the scientific
community as the inventor of the Telephone Induction Coil (1899) a device that in one
single step made long distance telephony possible. Sold in 1901 to the Bell System for
an unprecedented sum that gave him the opportunity expand his vision beyond the field
of his choosing. Also among Dr. Pupin’s 34 U.S. patents were important radio
developments and seminal work in Short Exposure X-Ra.y technology (1900) that led to
the safe use of the new x-ray technology in medical diagnostics.
Michael Pupin was born on October 4, 1854 in the small village of Idvor in what is now a
part of Serbia. He came to America at the age of 16 with only five cents in his pocket but
with boundless energy. Within five years he had prepared himself for entry into
Columbia College (University), graduated with honors, continued at Cambridge in
England and received his Doctorate in Physics in Germany. He returned to a teaching
position at Columbia where he soon founded the School of Electrical Engineering. Dr.
Pupin remained associated with Columbia for the rest of his life. Shortly after his death
on March 12, 1935 Columbia renamed the Physics building Pupin Physics Laboratories,
Dr. Pupin’s Peace Conference advice to President Wilson was instrumental in resolving
the borders that would define the new country that was to become Yugoslavia. Dr. Pupin
served as the President of several important professional institutions including the New
York Academy of Sciences, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Radio
Institute of America. Among his many honors was the Edison Medal (1920). Michael
Pupin wrote three well-received books including the best selling autobiography of his
fascinating life From Immigrant. To Inventor , awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1924.
On a personal note I wish to privately honor Michael Pupin on this significant year. Dr.
Pupin was a personal friend and mentor of my father Nikola J. Trbojevich (Terbo) from
the very time of father’s arrival in America. It has been my privilege to honor Dr. Pupin
several times in the past. I’ve attached a brief summary of that special connection.
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary TMSsw2
(732) 396-8852
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the Diciest. U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural, activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamernorialsociety.org
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POINTS OF SPECIAL CONNECTION BETWEEN MICHAEL PUP IN AND
WILLIAM TERBO THROUGH MY FATHER, NIKOLA TRBOJEVICH (TERBO)
On the occasion of the 150 th anniversary of the birth of Michael Pupin it is appropriate to
recall some details of a nearly lifelong appreciation of a person who was held in special
esteem by ones father, a person not related by blood but by an ethnicity combined with
professional accomplishment.
• In the Terbo (Trbojevich) household during my youth the name of Michael Pupin
was as often mentioned as that of father’s uncle, Nikola Tesla.
® When my father arrived in New York in 1914 it was Michael Pupin who first met
him. Pupin had a very specific policy of meeting and assisting talented Serbs
when they arrived in America through New York City. This began a relationship
that lasted until Pupin’s death in 1935. In spite of my grandmother, Angelina
Trbojevic (Tesla’s older sister), who veiy strongly instructing Tesla to “take care
of my boy” Tesla was temporarily occupied at the moment of father’s arrival.
• While my father always indicated that he already had a position as Design
Engineer at the AT&T Western Electric Division in Chicago before his arrival in
New York, I believe Pupin, who had a most influential connection with AT&T,
offered additional sponsorship help.
• Father’s rise to scientific prominence (over 150 patents including the seminal
invention of the Hypoid Gear) gave great pleasure to both Tesla and Pupin and
gave father a continuing social and professional access to both men.
® In 1979, to commemorate the 125 th Anniversary of Pupin’s birth, I made my first
trip to Yugoslavia to attend the Anniversary Celebration in Idvor, Pupin’s
birthplace, and other Yugoslav locations. My invitation was as an Honored Guest
of the Country (together with the Pupin Professor of Physics at Columbia
University, Madame C. S. Wu, and Isidor 1. Rabi, 1944 Nobelist in Physics and a
famous product of the Columbia Physics program).
® On October 5, 1979, I delivered my paper Pupin and Tesla - Parallels In Slavic
Creativity to the related International Symposium Life And Work Of Michael
Idvorsky Pupin at Novi Sad, Yugoslavia. (My hospitality included tours of the
entire former Yugoslavia including visits to Tesla’s birthplace, Smiljan, Lika.)
® In 1993, to honor my father and his relationship with Michael Pupin, and with the
sponsorship of the Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. (where I held the positions of
Chairman of the Executive Board and Honorary Chairman), we made the 50-
minute documentary video From Immigrant To Inventor, Michael Pupin
Remembered. I wrote the script and provided the narration, Ljubo Vujovic was
Producei and Iwona Vujovic was Technical Director. The Documentary had its
premiere at Columbia University that winter.
William H. Terbo, Executive Secretary WHT/tmssu2
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc.
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, NJ 07076
(732)396-8852
July, 2004
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NIKOLA TESLA, YOU’RE A MAN OUT OF TIME (DVD)
This high-energy DVD presents Nikola Tesla in a new and effective way. Crafted by
brothers Paul and Stephen Kingsley Hone, media professionals in Los Angeles, it
addresses an audience often overlooked by admirers of Nikola Tesla. The Hone brothers
have been fascinated by the work and personality of Tesla for more than 15 years. They
recognized that many or most of their friends and colleagues were aware of Tesla to
varying degrees. What was troubling was the almost universal lack of knowledge by
teenagers as to the specific connection between Tesla and those aspects of their lives they
use every day. They didn’t see the hand of Nikola Tesla in everyday items such as TV
and MTV, their computers and the internet, radio and their tape decks, and more.
The result is a 6-minute DVD Nikola Tesla, You ’re A Man Out Of Time presented in the
manner most familiar to and receptive by this particular audience without patronizing the
more adult audience. The DVD simply tries to make the Tesla connection in the most
entertaining way. Naturally, Tesla’s fundamental contributions to the worldwide systems
of alternating current electricity and radio are prominently identified. But the DVD also
tells a bit of his personality: his wish to share his inventions and the obstacles he faced. It
concludes with “you gave us today!” The result on the viewer is energy and pleasure.
Paul and Stephen Hone have graciously given the copyright ownership of this work to the
Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. It is the objective of the Society to make the DVD
available to the public in the widest way possible and without charge. Of course, the
copyright details (which are mentioned in the opening and end credits of the DVD) must
be retained whenever the DVD is played or retransmitted on any broadcast medium
whether over the internet, TV or radio.
The composition of the DVD is a quickly shifting series of images with the high-energy
song carrying the theme. The lyrics of the song are in relatively simple English. All of
the lyrics are shown either as subtitles or in images on the screen. The universality of
English should not make it necessary to add subtitles in a foreign language. However, it
is permissible to add subtitles in a foreign language for use in other countries where it is
determined that English would not convey the full intended impact of the song.
William H. Terbo
Executive Secretary September, 2005 TMSvx
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety. org
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
April 6, 2007
Mr. JeffBehary
627 36 th Street
West Palm Beach, FL 33407
Dear Jeff & Rita:
First, I want to thank you for the continuing stream of interesting material you send. The
Edison and Thomson letters are real finds. (I’ve spoken to Frank Jones briefly and will
send him the video you mentioned along with some other material I think he will find
interesting - as soon as I get a chance.)
About Waltham and speedometers. I’ve reviewed some of the correspondence between
Tesla and Dad. (As you know, they had an extensive exchange of letters and telegrams
covering each other’s inventions, family and money, money & more money.) Besides
complaining about money in a May 16, 1929 letter Tesla talks about Waltham in two
ways: he borrowed $15,000 from a Philadelphia Bank based on his contract with
Waltham that had to be repaid immediately because the bank was crippled by some
Federal Reserve ruling; and, that Waltham wanted to buy his patent. (Tesla offered to
reduce his royalty by 1/3 if Waltham paid $75,000. “That seemed a lot to them” and they
predicted he would be without money!) There is more from Tesla on the subject.
On May 7, 1929 Dad concluded his letter with “As you had written (about) your
speedometer, I think about Starret (Company) if you completed it. This is a big shame
because you had a chance to get something.” Jeff, I’ll try to put something together as
soon as I get a chance. (Time. It’s the same old problem.)
Now I’ll ask a favor of you. I’ve enclosed a note with six questions about Tesla’s
“Pancake” Coil. If you can give me some little (or a lot of) information that would
answer the questions, I would appreciate it - both for the researcher and for myseif.
Ell sign off for now. Thank you again for posting so much Society material on your
website, particularly about Dad, his patents and Ether and Mass-Energy Theory. If you
post the six Coil questions, please edit out my email address.
TMSbh
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
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TESLA MEMORIAL SOCIETY, INC
21 Maddaket, Southwyck Village
Scotch Plains, New Jersey 07076
March/April 2007
A private researcher has contacted me with questions about the electrical properties of
Tesla’s “Pancake” coil so prominently shown in one of the most famous Tesla photos.
To help this researcher (and for my own information) I am forwarding this list of six
questions to only three of the most technically qualified friends/members of our Society.
I’ll send the questions in order, one person at a time - not to all three at once - to keep to
the interruption for our colleagues to a minimum.
Whether or not you can provide any help with these questions, contact me by phone
and/or fax (732-396-8852, voice coordination preferred for fax) or on my (more or less
private) email (william.terbo@gmail.comT For fax, just mark up this page and send it
back. If there is literature available that answers these questions, please cite name and
location. Thanks in advance.
Questions on Nikola Tesla’s “Pancake” Coil. What is/are its:
1. Inductive reactance?
2. Capacitive reactance?
3. Inductance?
4. Capacitance?
5. Shape of its magnetic field?
6. Are there any unusual properties of pancake design versus conventional coil
design?
Remember, my engineering background is mechanical and rockets, so I will only absorb
as much as I can and pass your answers to the requesting colleague.
Bill TMSbg
The Tesla Memorial Society, Inc. is the oldest U.S. based international organization in continuous
operation honoring and perpetuating the memory and ideals of the great electrical scientist and inventor,
Nikola Tesla. The Society supports various cultural activities, participates in appropriate academic
conferences and provides a source for an accurate representation of Nikola Tesla for the media. The
Society is a non-political, non-profit, all volunteer membership organization founded in 1979, incorporated
in 1980, operating under Section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
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Visit our website: teslamemorialsociety.org
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Westinghouse - Premiere of New Documentary on Life of George Westinghouse
On Sunday, April 13, The Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center
presented the Premiere of Westinghouse the feature-length documentary about the life,
legacy and personality of George Westinghouse, his companies, his technology
partnership with Nikola Tesla and his “Battle of the Currents” with Thomas Edison. The
History Center is in association with the Smithsonian Institution.
Westinghouse is a 112-minute Inecom Entertainment Company Production, a part of the
Inecom The MINUTES OF HISTORY Series. The feature was produced, written and
directed by Mark Bussler and narrated by Carol Lee Espy, a Pittsburgh television
personality. An audience of five hundred attended the Premiere program
Heinz History Center President and Chief Executive Officer Mr. Andy Masich opened
the program with welcome, short remarks and recognition of honored guests including
George Westinghouse III and discussion panelists. Mr. Bussler was introduced and
entertainingly described some details of the creation of Westinghouse.
The Premiere program included a Panel Discussion hosted by Ms. Espy featuring
panelists: Edward J. Reis, Executive Director of the George Westinghouse Museum from
1998 until it was integrated into the Heinz History Center in 2007; William H. Terbo,
closest living relative of Nikola Tesla and Executive Secretary of the Tesla Memorial
Society, Inc.; Quentin R, Skrabec, Jr. PhD, international management consultant and
author of George Westinghouse: Gentle Genius ; and David Cope, educator and historian
of the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The panelists, who are among those
featured in Westinghouse , also answered many questions from the audience.
The Premiere program concluded with a showing of Westinghouse. Television
presentation of the film will be announced in due course. At present the Westinghouse
DVD can be purchased through commercial outlets such as Amazon.com
William H. Terbo April 2008
WHT/TMS dv
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THE- ELECTRICAL ENGINEER.
239
September 8, 1898.
Eighth Annual Meeting of the American Electro
Therapeutic Association.
The eighth annual meeting of the American Electro-Thera¬
peutic Association will be held in Buffalo on the 13 th, 14 th and
15 th of September. The business meetings of the association
will be held in the rooms of the Buffalo Society of Natural
Sciences, in the Public Library Building. Among the papers
to be presented are some by the most noted writers on medical
topics in this country and Europe, among which might be men¬
tioned Drs. Apostoli and Gautier, of Paris, Dr. La Torre, ol
Rome; Dr. J. L Parsons, of London; Mr. Nikola Tesla, of New
York, and a number of others of equal prominence. The papers
embrace the entire field of electro-therapeutics and will make the
convention of great interest and value. A public exhibition of'
electrical apparatus for diagnostic, radiographic and therapeutic
work will be held in the library, and a large number of enter¬
tainments have been provided for. Special hotel rates have been
secured at Niagara Falls as well as in Buffalo for all attending
the convention.
Twenty First Century Books
P.O. Box 2001
Breckenridge, CO 80424
346
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER.
Eighth Annual Meeting of the American Electro-
Therapeutic Association, Buffalo, N. Y.,
September 13, 14 and 15, 1898.
QHORTLY after 10 a. m. Dr. Charles Rea Dickson, of To¬
ronto, Canada, president of the American Electro-Thera¬
peutic Association, called together the eighth annual meeting of
the association in the rooms of the Buffalo Society of Natural
Sciences.
President Dickson introduced Dr. Conrad Diehl, Mayor of
Buffalo, who extended to the members of the association the free-
-dom of the city. He spoke of the growth and development of
■electrical treatment since the time it was first adopted by the
medical profession, as an important part of the professional ap¬
paratus. Dr. Diehl said that the street cars of Buffalo were now
run by electric power from Niagara Falls, and urged the mem-
bers of the association to inspect the electrical plant of the Buf¬
falo Railway Company.
Dr. Francis B. Bishop, of Washington, responded to the May-
■ or s welcome on behalf of the American Electro-Therapeutic
Association.
Reports of standing committees on scientific questions were
next 111 order. Dr. Margaret A. Cleaves, of New York, pre¬
sented her report on meters. The report was accepted and the
committee requested to continue its labors. Dr. Cleaves an¬
nounced that the committee was not willing to continue its work,
but desired the appointment of a new committee on meters.
Q11 constant current generators and controllers the report was
asked for from the chairman of the committee, Dr. William J.
Herdman, of Ann Arbor, Mich., but in his absence an auxiliary
icport was presented by another member of the committee, Dr.
Robert Newman, of New York, who in 1896 was president of
the American Electro-Therapeutic Association.
John J. Carty, electrical engineer, of New York, made a
brief report of progress. Pic is chairman of tile committee on
electric light apparatus for diagnosis and therapy and tne Roent¬
gen X-ray.
— arga ^ t - Cleaves, of New York, read a paper on
rhlebitis, a Clinical Study,” in which she gave a number of in¬
stances which had come under her professional supervision.
Dr. A. D. Rockwell read his paper on “The Diagnostic and
therapeutic Relations of Electricity to Diseases of the Central
Nervous System.”
AFTERNOON SESSION.
2 P- ni. the second session of the American Elec¬
tro-Therapeutic Association was called to order by President
Dickson. The first paper on the programme was by an honor¬
ary fellow of the society. Dr. Georges Apostoli, of Paris. The
subject'Was “New Uses of the Undulatory Current in Gynae¬
cology.” The paper was translated from French into English
and was read by Dr. G. Betton Massey, of Philadelphia.
Electricity in the Treatment of Uterine Fibromata” was the
subject of a paper by Dr. Felice La Torre, of Rome. Italy, read
by Dr. John Gerin, of Auburn, secretary of the association. Then
came a paper on “Electro-Therapeutics in Gynaecology.” by Drs.
Vol. XXVI. No. 544.
Georges Gautier and J. Larat, of Paris, France, read in English
by Dr. Dickson, president of the association, followed by “The
Treatment of Uterine Fibroids by Small Currents, Administered
Percutaneously,” by Dr. Richard J. Nunn, of Savannah, Ga.
Dr. W. H. White, of Boston, read a paper by Dr. Adelstan de
Martigny, of Montreal, on “Treatment of Menorrhagia by Weak
Current and Silver Internal Electrode.”
This was the concluding paper on the afternoon programme.
An early adjournment was taken in order that members of the
association might avail themselves of the tally-ho ride about the
city, planned by the committee on arrangements.
An invitation to the association to visit the storage battery of
the Buffalo Railway Company was sent by Superintendent Dan-
forth at the request of Mayor Diehl.
RECEPTION FOR THE VISITORS.
At 8:30 p. 111. a public reception in honor of the members of
the American Electro-Therapeutic Association was held in
Alumni Hall. University of Buffalo Building, which was largely
attended, many medical men of Buffalo being present.
Dr. Henry R. Hopkins, of Buffalo,., a member of the local
committee on arrangements, spoke of the earnest work of the
medical men in this country. Dr. Charles Rea Dickson, of To¬
ronto, president of the American Electro-Therapeutic Associa¬
tion, made a, few remarks, in which he spoke of the fraternal
feeling existing between the two great English-speaking nations
at the present time.
Dr. Robert Newman, of New York, made a brief address, as
did Dr. G. Sterling Ryerson, of Toronto, Deputy Surgeon Gen¬
eral of the Canadian Militia.
SECOND DAY'S SESSION.
An executive session of the American Electro-Therapeutic
Association was held at g a. m.
The report of the executive council on the revision of the con¬
stitution and by-laws was adopted, making, some important
changes.in the governing rules of the association.
The first'paper was presented by Dr. Lucien Howe, of Buffalo,
who represented the Erie County Medical Society and also the
New York State Medical Society at the convention. Dr. Howe’s
subject was “The Method for Using Cataphoresis' in Certain
Forms of Conjunctival.Inflammation.”
Dr. Howe illustrated his address by means of a number of his
patients. His lecture was received with great interest and consid¬
erable discussion followed. Many questions were asked Dr.
Howe concerning his methods o'f treatment
Dr. Robert Newman, of New York, presented an able paper
on “Electricity in Deafness and Stricture of the Eustachian
Tube.” In his address Dr. Newman rehearsed the history of a
peculiar case which came under his professional care. He also
cited a number of other cases, which had been reported by other
physicians.
The discussion which followed Dr. Newman’s paper was led
by Dr. Howe, followed by Dr. A. D. Rockwell, of New York.
Dr. Grover W. VVende, of Buffalo, read a paper on “Electricitv
in Acnc Vulgaris and Acne Rosaccae.”
Dr. G. Betton Massey, of Philadelphia, led the discussion of
Dr. Wende’s paper, followed by Dr. Margaret A. Cleaves of
New York.
Dr. G. Sterling Ryerson, of Toronto, Deputy Surgeon General
of the Canadian Militia and the accredited delegate of the On¬
tario Medical Association, was introduced by President Dickson,
and spoke briefly, giving a number of instances of the effect of
lightning-stroke causing diseases of the eye, in which the re¬
sults were not permanently serious.
Dr. Francis B. Bishop, of Washington, presented a paper on
High Tension Current in Neuritis,” which was followed by
considerable discussion.
The final paper of the morning session was by Dr. Charles Rea
Dickson on “Electricity in the Treatment of Goitre.”
At 1 o’clock the convention adjourned until 2 p ,m.
AFTERNOON SESSION.
President Dickson delivered his annual address, a part of
which is as follows:
“The necessity for the existence of such an association as ours
has been questioned not only here, but elsewhere, hence it may
be necessary to explain our position. It has been asked ‘Why
should there be such an association?’ Electricity is only one of
many therapeutic agents, and it would be absurd to have a sep¬
arate association to consider each therapeutic agent. At first
The Electrical Engineer.
Vol. XXVI.
NOVEMBER 17 , 1898 .
No. 550.
High Frequency Oscillators for Electro-therapeutic
and Other Purposes. 1
BY NIKOLA TESLA.
S OME theoretical possibilities offered by currents of very
high frequency and observations which I casually made
while pursuing experiments with alternating currents, as well
as the stimulating influence of the work of Hertz and of views
boldly put forth by Oliver Lodge, determined me some time
during 1889 to enter a systematic investigation of high fre¬
quency phenomena, and the results soon reached were such as
to justify’ further efforts towards providing the laboratory with
efficient means for carrying on the research in this particular
field, which has proved itself so fruitful since. As a consequence
alternators of special design were constructed and various ar¬
rangements for converting ordinary into high frequency cur¬
rents perfected, both of which were duly described and are now
—I assume—familiar.
One of the early observed and remarkable features of the
high frequency currents, and one which was chiefly of interest
to the physician, was their apparent harnilcssncss which made
it possible to pass relatively great amounts of electrical energy
through the body of a person without causing pain or serious
discomfort. This peculiarity which, together with other mostly
unlooked-for properties of these currents I had the honor to
bring to the attention of scientific men first in an article in a
technical journal in February, 1891, and in subsequent contri¬
butions to scientific'societies, made it at once evident,’that these
currents would lend themselves particularly to clcctro-thera-
pcutic uses.
With regard to the electrical actions in general, and by an¬
alogy, it was reasonable to infer that the physiological effects,
however complex, might be resolved in three classes. First the
statical, that is, such as are chiefly dependent on the magnitude
of electrical potential; second, the dynamical, that is, those
principally dependent on the quality of electrical movement or
current’s strength through the body, and third, effects of a
distinct nature due to electrical waves or oscillations, that is,
impulses in which the electrical energy is alternately passing
in more or less rapid succession through the static and dynamic
forms.
Most generally in practice these different actions arc co¬
existent, but by a suitable selection of apparatus and observance
of conditions the experimenter may make one or other of these
effects predominate. Thus he may pass through the body, or
any part of the same, currents of comparatively large volume
under a small electrical pressure, or he may subject the body
to a high electrical pressure while the current is negligibly
small, or he may put the patient under the influence of elec¬
trical waves transmitted, if desired, at considerable distance
through space.
While it remained for the physician to investigate the specific
actions on the organism and indicate proper methods of treat¬
ment, -the various ways of applying these currents to the body
of a patient suggested themselves readily to the electrician.
As one cannot be too clear in describing a subject, a dia¬
grammatic illustration of the several modes of connecting the
circuits which I will enumerate, though obvious for the ma¬
jority, is deemed of advantage.
The first and simplest method of applying the currents was
to connect the body of the patient to two points of the gene¬
rator, be it a dynamo or induction coil. Fig. 1 is intended to
illustrate this case. The. alternator G may be one giving from
five to ten thousand complete vibrations per second, this number
being still within the limit of practicability. The electromotive
force—as measured by a hot wire instrument—may be from fifty
‘Read at the eighth annual meeting
Association, Buffalo,- N. Y.,-Sept. 13
of The American Electro-Therapeutic
to 15, 1888.
to one hundred volts. To enable strong currents to be passed
through the tissues, the terminals T T, which serve to establish
contact with the patient’s body should, of course, be of large
area, and covered with cloth saturated with a solution of elec¬
trolyte harmless to the skin, or else the contacts are made by
immersion. The regulation of the currents is best effected by
means of an insulating trough A provided with two metal
terminals T’ T’ of considerable surface, one of which, at least,
should be movable. The trough is filled with water, and an,
electrolytic solution is added to the same, until a degree of con¬
ductivity is obtained suitable for the experiments.
When it is desired to use small currents of high tension, a
secondary coil is resorted to, as illustrated in Fig. 2. I have
found it from the outset convenient to make a departure from
the ordinary ways of winding the coils with a considerable
number of small turns. For many reasons the physician will
find it better to provide a large hoop H of not less than, say.
three feet in diameter and preferably more, and to wind upon
it a few turns of stout cable P. The secondary coil S is easily
prepared by taking Iwo wooden hoops h h and joining them
with stiff cardboard. One single layer of ordinary magnet wire,
and not too thin at that, will be generally sufficient, the number
of turns necessary for the particular use for which the coil is
intended being easily ascertained by a few trials. Two plates
of large surface, forming an adjustable condenser, may he used
for the purpose of synchronizing the secondary with the primary
circuit, but this is generally not necessary. In this manner a
FIGS. 1, 2, 3 AND 4.
cheap coil is obtained, and one which cannot be easily injured.
Additional advantages, however, will be found in the perfect
regulation which is effected merely by altering the distance
between the primary and secondary, for which adjustment pro¬
vision should be made, and, furthermore, in the occurrence of
harmonics which are more pronounced in such large coils of
thick wire, situated at some distance from the primary.
The preceding arrangements may also he used with alternat¬
ing or interrupted currents of low frequency, hut certain peculiar
properties of high frequency currents make it possible to apply
the latter in ways entirely impracticable with the former.
One of the prominent characteristics of high frequency or,
to be more general, of rapidly varying currents, is that they
pass with difficulty through stout conductors of high self-induc¬
tion. So great is the obstruction which self-induction offers to
their passage that it was found practicable, as shown in the
early experiments to which reference has been made, to main¬
tain differences of potential of many thousands of volts between
two points—not more than a few inches apart—of a thick cop¬
per bar of inappreciable resistance. This observation naturally
suggested the disposition illustrated in Fig. 3. The source of
high frequency impulses is in this instance a familiar type of
transformer which may be supplied from a generator G of or¬
dinary direct or alternating currents. The transformer com¬
prises a primary P, a secondary S, two condensers C C which
are joined in series, a loop or coil of very thick wire L and a
circuit interrupting device or break b. The currents are derived
478
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER. Vol. XXVI. No. 550.
from the loop L by two contacts c c', one or both of which are
capable of displacement along the wire L. By varying the dis¬
tance between these contacts, any difference of potential, from
a few volts to many thousands, is readily obtained on the term¬
inals or handles T T. This mode of using the currents is en¬
tirely safe and particularly convenient, but it requires a very
uniform working of the break b employed for charging and
discharging the condenser.
Another equally remarkable feature of high frequency im¬
pulses was found in the facility with which they are transmitted
through condensers, moderate electromotive forces and very
small capacities being required to enable currents of consider¬
able volume to pass. This observation made it practicable to
resort to a plan such as indicated in Fig. 4. Here the connec¬
tions are similar to those shown in the preceding case, except
that the condensers C C are joined in parallel. This lowers the
frequency of the currents, but has the advantage of allowing
tlie working with a much smaller difference of potential on the
terminals uf the secondary S. Since the latter is the chief item
of expense of such apparatus and since its price rapidly in¬
creases with the number of turns required, the experimenter will
find it generally cheaper to make a sacrifice in.the frequency,
which, however, will be high enough for most purposes. How¬
ever, he only needs to reduce proportionately the number of
turns or the length of primary p to obtain the same frequency
as before, but the economy of transformation will oe somewhat
reduced in so doing and the break b will require more attention.
The secondary S 1 of the high frequency coil has two metal
plates t t of considerable surface connected to its terminals, and
the current for use is derived from two similar plates t't' in
proximity to the former. Both the tension and volume of the
currents taken from terminals T T may be easily regulated and
in a continuous manner by simply varying the distance between
the two pair of plates t t and t't' respectively.
A facility is also afforded in this disposition for raising or low¬
ering the potential of one of the terminals T, irrespective of
the changes produced on the other terminal,-this making it
possible to cause a stronger action on one or other part of
the patient’s body.
The physician may find it for some or other reason conve¬
nient to modify the arrangements in Figs. 2, 3 and 4 by con¬
necting one terminal of the high frequency source to the ground.
The effects will be in most respects the same, but certain pecu¬
liarities will be noted in each case. When a ground connection
is made it may be of some consequence which of the terminals
of the secondary is connected to the ground, as in high fre¬
quency discharges the impulses of one direction arc generally
preponderating.
Among the various noteworthy features of these currents
there is one which lends itself especially to many valuable uses.
It is the facility which they afford for conveying large amounts
of electrical energy to a body entirely insulated in space. The
practicability of this method of energy transmission, which is
already receiving useful applications and promises to become of
great importance in the near future, has helped to dispel the old
notion assuming the necessity of a return circuit for the con¬
veyance of electrical energy in any considerable amount. With
novel appliances we are enabled to pass through a wire, entirely
insulated on one end, currents strong enough to fuse it, or to
convc3 - through the wire any amount of energy to an insulated
body. This me ' ?i applying high frequency currents in med¬
ical treatment appears to me to offer the greatest possibilities at
the hands of the physician. The effects produced in this manner
possess features entirely distinct from those observed when the
currents are applied in any of the before mentioned or similar
ways. ■“
The circuit connections as usually made arc illustrated schem¬
atically in Fig. 5, which, with reference to the diagrams before
shown, is self-explanatory. The condensers C C, connected in
series, are preferably charged by a step-up transformer, but a.
high frequency alternator, static machine, or a direct current
generator, if it be of sufficiently high tension to enable the use
of small condensers, may be used with more or less success. The
primary p, through which the high frequency discharges of the
condensers arc passed, consists of very few turns of cable of
as low resistance as possible, and the secondary s, preferably
at some distance from the primary to facilitate free oscillation,
has one of its ends—that is the one which is nearer to the pri¬
mary—connected to the ground, while the other end leads to
an insulated terminal T, with which the body of the patient is
connected. It is of importance in this case to establish syn¬
chronism between the oscillations in the primary and secon¬
dary circuits p and s respectively. This will be as a rule best
effected by varying the self-induction of the circuit including;
the primary loop or coil p, for which purpose an adjustable
self-induction e is provided; but in cases when the electro¬
motive force of the generator is exceptionally high, as when
a static machine is used and a condenser consisting of merely
two plates offers sufficient capacity, it will be simpler to attain
the same object by varying the distance of the plates.
The primary and secondary oscillations being in close syn¬
chronism, the points of highest potential will be on a part of
terminal T, and the consumption of energy will occur chiefly
there. The attachment of the patient’s body to the terminal
will in most cases very materially affect the period of oscillation
in the secondary, making it longer, and a readjustment of the
primary circuit will have to be made in each case to suit the
capacity of the body connected with terminal T. Synchronism
should always be preserved, and the intensity of the action
varied by moving the secondary coil to or from the primary,
as may be desired. I know of no method which would make
it possible to subject the human body to such excessive elec¬
trical pressures as arc practicable with this, or of one which
would enable the conveying to and giving off from the body
without serious injury amounts of electrical energy approximat¬
ing even in a remote degree those which are entirely practicable
when this manner of applying the energy is resorted to. This
is evidently due to the fact that the action is chiefly superficial,
the largest possible section being offered to the transfer of the
current, or, to say more correctly, of the energy. With a very
rapidly and smoothly working break I would not think it im¬
possible to convey to the body of a person and to give off into
the space energy at the rate of several horse power with im¬
punity, while a small part of this amount applied in other ways
could not fail to produce injury.
When a person is subjected to the action of such a coil, the
proper adjustments being carefully observed, luminous streams
are seen in the dark issuing from all parts of the body. These
streams are short and of delicate texture when the number of
breaks is very great and the action of the device b (Fig. 5)
free of any irregularities, but when the number of breaks Is
small or the action of the device imperfect, long and noisy
streams appear which cause some discomfort. The physio¬
logical effects produced with apparatus of this kind may be
graduated from a hardly perceptible action when the secondary
is at a great distance from the primary, to a most violent one
when both coils arc placed at a small distance. In the latter
case only a few seconds are sufficient to cause a feeling of
warmth all over the body, and soon after the person perspires
freely. I have repeatedly, in demonstrations to friends, ex¬
posed myself longer to the action of the oscillations, and each
time, after the lapse of an hour or so, an immense fatigue, of
which it is difficult to give an idea, would take hold of me. It
was greater than I experienced on some occasions after the
most straining and prolonged bodily exertion. I could scarcely
make a step and could keep the eyes open only with the greatest
difficulty. I slept soundly afterward, and the after-effect was
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER.
347
October 6, 1898.
■glance this may seem a quite rational question. Our colleges
teach us how to administer opium and its various derivatives,
therefore the necessity for an opium society does not exist, but
•do our colleges teach us anything about electricity worthy of the
.subject? The answer to this question is quite unnecessary in the
presence of the members of our association. Anyone should he
■depended upon to prescribe and administer the ordinary, or even
extraordinary, remedies to carry out any regulation form of
treatment. But I, for one, should fear to trust myself to the ten-
•der mercies of the general practitioner of to-day did he, in his
wisdom, consider it necessary to use this agent, electricity, un¬
less he had paid some special attention to the mastery of it. The
contention is an absurdity unworthy of America, the vaunted
land of progress, and of Buffalo, the Electrical City. In my own
•benighted land, even, we are more enlightened than that. This
is an age of specialism.
“The old-time practitioner, then the physician and surgeon,
■seems passing away. Surgery is being divided and subdivided,
until at one time we feared that we were to be confronted with
an appendix surgeon. Our patients are reaping the benefit of
■all this. Why, then, should we call a halt? No! Let onward
be our cry. The time is past when a physician, the proud pos¬
sessor of a solitary magneto-electrical machine, turned by n
crank, considered his armamentarium electricum quite complete.
■One has but to glance at our programme to see to what extent
■electricity may be used to advantage. A programme such as
ours should prove a perfect revelation to him who has not kept
•well up to this progressive age. Could such a programme or
one-hundredth part of it be intelligently discussed in any other
existing society to-day not dealing distinctiy with the subject?
No, I greatly fear it would be a hidden book, a stumbling
•block.
“The hope of the future lies in those who are now thronging
•wisdom’s halls, and it is a subject for congratulation that this
association is to be asked to take action, bringing the needs of
•the hour before the authorities competent to deal with them.
The student with mind as yet unwarped by prejudice must be in
a position to obtain a comprehensive, intelligent grasp of the
whole subject, that he may turn his theories to practical account
•in his professional career. But even he, unless endowed by these
inestimable blessings, common sense, patience and gentleness,
will find his efforts unavailing, and he must be a close observer
of Nature and her laws, seeking to assist rather than to combat
her. Electricity is an agent most powerful for weal or woe. A
great responsibility rests upon our educators, and the sooner
they awake from their strange lethargy the better will it be for
our reputation as an enlightened, progressive, Scientific profes¬
sion. The commercial world has taken such advantage of the
rapid strides of electricity as a science with fixed laws that we
have laid ourselves open to the charge of neglect. Let us hasten
to make amends for the past and remove some of the reproaches
that rest on this, the noblest profession in this fair world.
"Our association was organized some eight years ago, be¬
cause it was felt that the subject of electro-therapeutics could not
be discussed in any existing society in a scientific and practical
manner without controversial digressions of no value whatever.
It was felt, and felt strongly, that electricity had been left too
long to the charlatan, the incompetent and the unscrupulous. It
was also felt that we had another foe of hardly less dangerous
■character, the over-zealous.
“To combat all these and cultivate and promote knowledge of
•electricity wherever it can be of service in medicine and surgery
is the object of our association. It must be admitted that we are
setting about this in the most practical manner possible. In
fact. I know of no other association in which more practical
■or more useful work is being done. To carry out this idea suc¬
cessfully we have associated with us other than purely medical
practitioners, and the association has proved a most happy one,
and fruitful of nothing but good. Thus the electrical engineer
■and expert study electricity’s laws and note its action upon inert
matter. The biologist and physicist go a step farther and study
these laws in their action upon living tissue, and their labors are
turned to practical account by the physician and surgeon. The
•curative and palliative powers of the agent are available to all
•who have access to my clinics.
“The clouds are breaking on our horizon. On my side of that
imaginary boundary line we find increasing interest being mani¬
fest, and it gives me the greatest satisfaction to say that my
■own warmest friends in the city of-my adoption are the men who
■stand in the front ranks of medicine and surgery, and electro¬
therapy has a recognized standing, inasmuch as special depart¬
ments devoted to it are to be found in our public hospitals. I
have had the honor to organize and now to preside over four
such departments in as many hospitals, and more intelligent in¬
quiries are being made by the students of the various medical col¬
leges. all of whom have access to my clinics.
“A rock we must avoid is that on which many a stronger so¬
ciety than our own has come to grief, the clique. And the fur¬
therance of personal ambition or personal designs must be
shunned.”
All the suggestions embodied in the address were reierred to
the executive council of the association.
The programme for the afternoon was made up of a series of
ten-minute talks on “Electro-Therapy.” and the subject was one
to attract a widespread interest among members of the medical
fraternity.
Dr. G. Betton Massey, of Philadelphia, presented a paper on
“The Galvanic Current in Gynaecology.” The next paper was
“Surgical Uses of Electricity,” by Dr. Charles Rea Dickson,
president of the association.
Dr. Robert Newman, of New York, presented a paper on
“Electricity in Genito-Urinary Diseases." Dr. G. Betton Mas¬
sey spoke on “Treatment of Malignant Growths by Means of
Electricity.”
A paper by Dr. Louis A. Weigel, of Rochester, on “Orthoptcdie
Uses of Electricity,” was followed by a paper by Dr. Rockwell
on “Functional Diseases of the Nervous System Treated by Elec¬
tricity.”
The association adjourned at 4:30 p. m. and proceeded by spe¬
cial car to visit the power house and storage batteries -of the
Buffalo Railway Company. .
A short business session of the American Electro-Therapeutic
Association was held from 8 to 9 p. in., at which the following
officers were elected: President. Dr. Francis B. Bishop, of
Washington; first vice-president. Dr. Ernest Wende, of Buffalo:
second vice-president. Dr. W. H. White, of Boston: secretary.
Dr. John Gcrin, of Auburn; treasurer, Dr. Richard T. Nunn, of
Savannah, Ga.; executive council, Dr. Robert Newman, of New
York, and Dr. G. Betton Massey, of Philadelphia, three years:
Dr. A. D. Rockwell and Dr. William J. Morton, of New York,
two years; Dr. Charles R. Dickson, of Toronto, and Dr. Fred¬
erick Schavoir, of Stamford, Conn., one year. Washington was
selected for the convention next year, to be held September 19-
21, 1899.
Dr. Lucien Howe entertained the men of the association at the
conclusion of the business meeting. A smoker was given at Dr.
Howe’s home, corner of Delaware avenue and Huron street,
which was largely attended.
THIRD DAY'S SESSIONS.
A vote of thanks was tendered to Dr. Wende, chairman of the
local committee on arrangements; to the Buffalo Commercial for
its kindness, not only during the convention, but in publishing
the preliminary news of the association; to Dr. Howe, for his
entertainment last evening; to Mayor Diehl, to the Buffalo Rail¬
way Company, Buffalo Historical Society, Fine Arts Academy,
president and secretary of the association, and Dr. Newman, of
New York, and to the press generally.
The congratulations of the American Electro-Therapeutic As¬
sociation were extended to the University of Buffalo for its
progress in establishing a chair of electro-therapeutics in the
medical college.
A general vote of thanks was also adopted, expressing the as¬
sociation’s deep appreciation of the courtesy and hospitality ex¬
tended to the members during the convention in Buffalo.
At 10 o’clock the executive session adjourned and President
Dickson called the scientific session to order. The first two
papers on the programme were read by title. They were both by
Drs. Georges Gautier and J. Larat, of Paris, France, the first
on “The Hydro-Electric Bath with Sinusoidal Current in Dis¬
ease,” the second on “The Use of Hot Air and Light Bath in
Disease.”
A paper was read by the newly-elected president of the as¬
sociation, Dr. Francis B. Bishop, of Washington, on “Alternat¬
ing Dynamo Currents.”
Dr. Margaret A. Cleaves, of New York, read a paper on “The
Electric Arc Bath.”
A paper by Dr. J. H. Kellogg, of Battle Creek. Mich., on
‘The Electric Light Bath” was read by title. The next paper
was by John J. Carty. of New York, on “Some Suggestions on
348
Vol. XXVI. No. 544 .
THE ’ELECTRICAL ENGINEER.
the Possibilities of Cataphoresis.” Mr. Carty gave a short, prac¬
tical talk, which was very interesting.
A paper by Dr. G. Herbert Burnham, of Toronto, Canada, on
“Electricity in the Treatment of Certain Diseases of the Eye,”
was read by title.
Then came a paper by Nikola Tesla, read by Dr. White, of
Boston. The subject was "A High Frequency Oscillator for
Electro-Therapeutic Purposes.”
The following papers were read by title: “The Effect of High
Tension Discharges Upon Micro-Organisms,” Drs. J. Inglis Par¬
sons and C. Slater, London, England; "The Action of X-Rays
Upon Tuberculosis,” Dr. J. Bergonie, Bordeaux, France; “Iwo
Years of Practice in Radiotherapy,” Drs. Georges Gautier and
J. Larat, Paris, France.
Dr. Newman, of New York, and Dr. Nunn, of Savannah, Ga.,
were, appointed a committee by the president to conduct the
president-elect, Dr. Bishop, of Washington, to the chair. Be¬
fore turning over to his successor the gavel and other insignia of
office Dr. Dickson took occasion to thank the association for its
kindness and courtesy to him during his term of office.
The afternoon was devoted to an excursion and reception un¬
der the direction of the local committee of arrangements.
On Friday afternoon the members were conducted over the
power house of the Niagara Falls Power Company by Coleman
Sellers, E. D., president and chief engineer, who made the visit
a most interesting and instructive one. On returning to the hotel
a meeting was held and Dr. C. R. Dickson was requested to con¬
vey to Dr. Sellers the thanks of the association for his cour¬
tesy.
Those who remained visited on Saturday morning Power Sta¬
tion No. 2 of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufac¬
turing Company, being conducted over it by the chief electri¬
cian, who fully explained all the appliances.
A most interesting exhibition of electrical apparatus for diag¬
nostic, therapeutic and radiographic purposes was held in the
room adjoining the meeting hall. The following manufacturers
exhibited: Van Houten & Ten Broeck, New York; Chloride of
Silver Dry Cell Battery Company, Baltimore, Md.; Jerome Kid¬
der Manufacturing Company, New York; Edison Manufacturing
Company, New York; Waite & Bartlett Company, New York;
Dow Electric Assistant Company, Boston, Mass.; the American
Electro-Neurotone Company, Niagara Falls, N. Y.; the Stand¬
ard Cold Electric Lamp Company, Washington, D. C.; the Spen¬
cer Lens Company. Buffalo. N. Y.; the Detwillcr, Biddle Com-
paiiy, Buffalo, N. Y.; W. J. Shields & Co., New Wilmington,
Pa.; Rochester Fluorometer Company, Rochester, N. Y.
The eighth annual meeting was unanimously conceded the
most successful an'd enjoyable that has been held, and the pros¬
pects for the association were never brighter or more encourag¬
ing.
November 17, 1898.
479
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER.
certainly beneficial, but the medicine was manifestly too strong
to be used frequently.
One should be cautious in performing such experiments for
more than one reason. At or near the surface of the skin, where
the most intense action takes place, various chemical products
are formed, the chief being ozone and nitrogen compounds.
The former is itself very destructive, this feature being illustrated
by the fact that the rubber inslation of a wire is destroyed so
quickly as to make the use of such insulation entirely imprac¬
ticable. The compounds of nitrogen, when moisture is present,
consists largely of nitric acid which might, by excessive appli¬
cation, prove hurtful to the skin. So far, I have not noted in¬
juries which could be traced directly to this cause, though on
several occasions bums were produced in all respects similar
to those which were later observed and attributed to the Rontgen
rays. This view is seemingly being abandoned, having not
been substantiated by experimental facts, and so also is the no¬
tion that these rays are transverse vibrations. But while inves¬
tigation is being turned in what appears to be the right direc¬
tion, .scientific men are still at sea. This state of things impedes
the progress of the physicist in these new regions and makes
the already hard task of the physician still more difficult and
uncertain.
One or two observations made while pursuing experiments
with the apparatus described might be found as deserving men¬
tion here. As before stated, when the oscillations in the primary
and secondary cirucits are in synchronism, the points of highest
potential are on some portion of the terminal T. The syn¬
chronism being perfect and the length of the secondary coil
just equal to one-quarter of the wave length, these points will
be exactly on the free end of terminal T, that is, the one situated
farthest from the end of the wire attached to the terminal. If
this be so and if now the period of the oscillations in the pri¬
mary be shortened, the points of highest potential will recede
towards the secondary coil, since the wave-length is reduced
and since the attachment of one end of the secondary coil to
the ground determines the position of the nodal points, that is,
the points of least potential. Thus, by varying the period of
vibration of the primary circuit in any manner, the points of
highest potential may be shifted accordingly along the terminal
T, which has been shown, designedly, long to illustrate this fea¬
ture. The same phenomenon is, of course, produced if the body
of a patient constitutes the terminal, and an assistant may by
the motion of a handle cause the points of highest potential to
shift along the body with any speed he may desire. When the
action of the coil is vigorous, the region of highest potential is
easily and unpleasantly located by the discomfort or pain ex¬
perienced, and it is most curious to feel how the pain wanders
up and down, or eventually across the body, from hand to hand,
if the connection to the coil is accordingly made—in obedience
to the movement of the handle controlling the oscillations.
.Though I have not observed any specific action in experiments
of this kind, I have always felt that this effect might be capable
of valuable use in electro-therapy.
Another observation which promises to lead to much more
useful results is the following: As before remarked, by adopt¬
ing the method described, the body of a person may be sup-
jected without danger to electrical pressures vastly in excess
of any producible by ordinary apparatus, for they may amount
to several million volts, as has been shown in actual practice.
Now, when a conducting body is electrified to so high a degree,
small particles, which may be adhering firmly to its surface,
are torn off with violence and thrown to distances which can
be only conjectured., I find that not only firmly adhering mat¬
ter, as paint, for instance, is thrown off, but even the particles
of the toughest metals are tom off. ' Such actions have been
thought to be restricted to a vacuous inclosure, but with a pow¬
erful coil they occur also in the ordinary atmosphere. The facts
mentioned would make it reasonable to expect that this extra¬
ordinary effect which, in other ways, I have already usefully
applied, will likewise prove to be of value in electro-therapy.
The continuous improvement of the instruments and the study
of the phenomenon may shortly lead to the establishment of a
novel mode of hygienic treatment which would permit an in¬
stantaneous cleaning of the skin of a person, simply by con¬
necting the same to, or possibly, by merely placing the person
in the vicinity of a source of intense electrical oscillations, this
having the effect of throwing off, in a twinkle of the eye, dust
or particles of any extraneous matter adhering to the body.
Such a result brought about in a practicable manner would,
without doubt, be of incalculable value in hygiene and would
be an efficient and time-saving substitute for a water bath, and
particularly appreciated by those whose contentment consists in
undertaking more than they can accomplish.
High frequency impulses produce powerful inductive actions
and in virtue of this feature they lend themselves in other ways
to the uses of the electro-therapeutist. These inductive effects
are either electrostatic or elcctrodynamic. The former diminish
much more rapidly with the distance—with the square of the
same—the latter are reduced simply in proportion to the dis¬
tance. On the other hand, the former grow with the square of
intensity of the source, while the latter increase in a simple pro¬
portion with the intensity. Both of these effects may be utilized
for establishing a field of strong action extending through con¬
siderable space, as through a large hall, and such an arrangement
might be suitable for use in hospitals or institutions of this
kind, where it is desirable to treat a number of patients at the
same time.
Fig. 6 illustrates the manner, as I have shown it originally,
in which such a field of electrostatic action is established. In
this diagram G is a generator of currents of very high frequency,
C a condenser for counteracting the self-induction of the circuit
which includes the primary P of an induction coil, the secon¬
dary S of which has two plates l t of large surface connected
to its terminals. Well known adjustments being observed, a
very strong action occurs chiefly in the space between the plates,
and the body of a person is subjected to rapid variations of po¬
tential and surgings of current, which produce, even at a great
distance, marked physiological effects. In my first experiments
I used two metal plates as shown, but later I found it preferable
to replace them by two large hollow spheres of brass covered
with wax of a thickness of about two inches. The cables lead¬
ing to the terminals of the secondary coil were similarly cov¬
ered, so that any of them could be approached without danger
of the insulation breaking down. In this manner the un¬
pleasant shocks, to which the experimenter was exposed when
using the plates, were prevented.
In Fig. 7 a plan for similarly utilizing the dynamic inductive
effects of high frequency currents is illustrated. As the fre¬
quencies obtainable from an alternator are not as high as is
desired, conversion by means of condensers is resorted to. The
diagram will be understood at a glance from the foregoing de¬
scription. It only need be stated that the primary p, through
which the condensers are made to discharge, is formed by a
thick stranded cable of low self-induction and resistance, and
passes all around the hall. Any number of secondary coils s s s,
each consisting generally of a single layer of rather thick wire,'
may be provided. I have found it practicable to use as many
as one hundred, each being adjusted for a definite period and
responding to a particular vibration passed through the pri¬
mary. Such a plant I have had in use in my laboratory since
1892, and many times it has contributed to the pleasure of my
visitors and also proved itself of practical utility. On a latter
occasion I had the pleasure of entertaining some of the mem-
480
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER.
Vol. XXVI. No. 550.
bers with experiments of this kind, and this opportunity I can¬
not let pass without expressing my thanks for the interest which
was awakened in me by their visit, as well as for the generous
acknowledgment of the courtesy by the Association. Since
that time my apparatus has been very materially improved, and
now I am able to create a field of such intense induction in the
laboratory that a coil three feet in diameter, by -careful adjust¬
ment, will deliver energy at the rate of one-quarter of a horse
power, no matter where it is placed within the area inclosed by
the primary loops. Long sparks, streamers and all other phe¬
nomena obtainable with induction coils arc easily producible
anywhere within the space, and such coils, though not-con¬
nected to anything, may be utilized exactly as ordinary coils,
and what is still more remarkable, they arc more effective. .For
the past few years I have often been urged to show experiments
in public, but, though I was desirous to comply with such re¬
quests, pressing work has so far made it impossible. These
advances have been the result of slow but steady improvement
in the details of the apparatus which I hope to be able to de¬
scribe connectedly in the near future.
However remarkable the clectrodynamic inductive effects,
which I have mentioned, may appear, they may be still consid¬
erably intensified by concentrating the action upon a very small
space. It is evident that since, as before stated, electromotive
forces of many thousand volts are maintained between two
points of a conducting bar or loop only a few inches long,'
electromotive forces of approximately the same magnitude will
be set up in conductors situated near by. Indeed, I found that
it was practicable in this manner to pass a discharge through
a highly exhausted bulb, although the electromotive force re¬
quired amounted to as much as ten or twenty thousand, volts,
and for a long time I followed up experiments in this direction
with the object of producing light in a novel and more econom¬
ical way. But the tests left no doubt that there was great
energy consumption attendant to this mode of illumination, at
least with the apparatus I had then at command, and, finding
another method which promised a higher economy of trans¬
formation, my efforts turned in this new direction. Shortly
afterward (some time in June, 1891,) Prof. J. J. Thomson de¬
scribed experiments which were evidently the outcome of long
investigation, and in which he supplied much novel and interest¬
ing information, and this made me return with renewed zeal
to my own experiments. Soon my efforts were centered upon
producing in a small space the most intense inductive action,
and by gradual improvement in the apparatus I obtained re¬
sults of a surprising character. For instance, when the end of
a heavy bar of iron was thrust within a loop powerfully ener¬
gized, a few moments were sufficient to raise the bar to a high
temperature. Even heavy lumps of other metals were heated as
rapidly as though they were placed in a furnace. When a con¬
tinuous band formed of a sheet of tin was thrust into the loop,
the metal was fused instantly, the action being comparable to
an explosion, and no wonder, for the frictional losses accumu¬
lated in it at the rate of possibly ten horse power. Masses of
poorly conducting material behaved similarly, and when a highly
exhausted bulb was pushed into the loop, the glass was heated
in a few seconds nearly to the point of melting.
When I first observed these astonishing actions, I was in¬
terested to study their effects upon living tissues. As may be
assumed, I proceeded with all the necessary caution, and well
I might, for I had the evidence that in a turn of only a few
inches in diameter an electromotive force of more than ten
thousand volts was produced, and such high pressure would be
more than sufficient to generate destructive currents in the
tissue. This appeared all the more certain as bodies of com¬
paratively poor conductivity were rapidly heated and even par¬
tially destroyed. One may imagine my astonishment when I
found that I could thrust my hand or any other part of the body
within tlie loop and hold it there with impunity. More than on
one occasion, impelled by a desire to make some novel and use¬
ful observation, I have willingly or unconsciously performed
an experiment connected with some risk, this being scarcely
avoidable in laboratory experience, but I have always believed,
and do so now, that I have never undertaken anything in which,
according to my own estimation, the chances of being injured
were so great as when I placed my head within the space in
which such terribly destructive forces were at work. Yet I have
done so, and repeatedly, and have felt nothing. But I am firmly
convinced that there is great danger attending such an experi¬
ment, and some one going just a step farther than I have gone
may be instantly destroyed. For, conditions may exist similar
to those observable with a vacuum bulb. It may be placed in
the field of the loop, however intensely energized, and so long
as no path for the current is formed, it will remain cool and con¬
sume practically no energy. But the moment the first feeble
current passes, most of the energy of the oscillations rushes to
the place of consumption. If by any action whatever, a con¬
ducting path were formed within the living tissue or bones of
the head, it would result in the instant destruction of these and
death of the foolhardy experimenter. Such a method of kill¬
ing, if it were rendered practicable, would be absolutely. pain¬
less. Now, why is .it that in a space in which such violent tur-
pioil is going on living tissue remains uninjured? One might
say the currents cannot pass because of the great self-induction
offered by the large conducting mass. But this it cannot be,
because a mass of metal offers a still higher self-induction and
is heated just the same. One might argue the tissues offer too
great a resistance. But this again cannot be the reason, for all
evidence shows that the tissues conduct well enough, and be¬
sides, bodies of approximately the same resistance are raised
to a high temperature. One might attribute the apparent harm-
lcssncss of the oscillations to the high specific heat of the tissue,
but even a rough quantitative estimate from experiments with
other bodies shows that this view is untenable. The only plaus¬
ible explanation I have so far found is that the tissues are con¬
densers. This only can account for the absence of injurious
action. But it is remarkable that, as soon as a heterogeneous
circuit is constituted, as by taking in the hands a bar of metal
and forming a closed loop in this manner, the passage of the
currents through the arms is felt, and other physiological effects
are distinctly noted. The strongest action is, of course, secured
when the .exciting loop makes only one turn, unless the con¬
nections take up a considerable portion of the total length of
the circuit, in which case the experimenter should settle upon
the least number of turns by carefully estimating what he loses
by increasing the number of turns, and what he gains by utiliz¬
ing thus a greater proportion of the total length of the circuit.
It should be borne in mind that, when the exciting coil has a
considerable number of turns and is of some length, the effects
of electrostatic induction may preponderate, as there may exist
a very great difference of potential—a hundred thousand volts
or more—between the first and last turn. However, these latter
effects are always present even when a single turn is employed.
When a person is placed within such a loop, any pieces of
metal, though of small bulk, are perceptibly warmed. Without
doubt they would be also heated—particularly if they were of
iron—when embedded in living tissue, and this suggests the
possibility of surgical treatment by this method. It might be
possible to sterilize wounds, or to locate, or even to extract me¬
tallic objects, or to perform other operations of this kind within
the sphere of the surgeon’s duties in this novel manner.
Most of the results enumerated, and many others still more
remarkable, are made possible only by utilizing the discharges
of a condenser. It is probable that but a very few—even among
those who are working in these identical fields—fully appreciate
what a wonderful instrument such a condenser is in reality.
Let me convey an idea to this effect. One may take a con¬
denser, small enough to go in one’s vest pocket, and by skil¬
fully using it he may create an electrical pressure vastly in ex¬
cess—a hundred times greater if necessary—than any producible
by the largest static machine ever constructed. Or, he may
take the same condenser and, using it in a different way, he'
may obtain from it currents against which those of the most
powerful welding machine are utterly insignificant. Those who
are imbued with popular notions as to the pressures of static ma¬
chines and currents obtainable with a commercial transformer,
will be astonished at this statement—yet the truth of it is easy
lo sec. Such results arc obtainable, and easily, because the
condenser can discharge the stored energy in an inconceivably
short time. ■ Nothing like this property is known in physical
science. A compressed spring, or a storage battery, or any other
form of device capable of storing energy, cannot do this; if
they could, things undreamt of at present might be accom¬
plished by their means. The nearest approach to a charged
condenser is a high explosive, as dynamite. But even the most
violent explosion of such a compound bears no comparison
with the discharge or explosion of a condenser. For, while
the pressures which are produced in the detonation of a chem-
November 17, 1898.
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER.
481
ical compound are measured in tens of tons per square inch,
those which may be caused by condenser discharges may amount
to thousands of tons per square inch, and if a chemical could be
made which would explode as quickly as a condenser can be
discharged, under conditions which are realizable—an ounce of
it would quite certainly be sufficient to render useless the largest
battleship.
That important realizations would follow from the use of an
instrument possessing such ideal properties I have -been con¬
vinced since long ago, but I also recognized early that great
difficulties would have to be overcome before it could replace
less perfect implements now used in the arts for the manifold
transformations of electrical energy. These difficulties were
many. The condensers themselves, as usually manufactured,
were inefficient, the conductors wasteful, the best insulation in¬
adequate, and the conditions for the most efficient conversion
were hard to adjust and to maintain. One difficulty, however,
which was more serious than the others, and to which I called
attention when I first described this system of energy transfor¬
mation, was found in the devices necessarily used for controlling
the charges and discharges of the condenser. They were want¬
ing in efficiency and reliability and threatened to prove a decided
drawback, greatly restricting the use of the system and depriv¬
ing it of many valuable features. For a number of years I have
tried to master this difficulty. During this time a great number
of such devices were experimented upon. Many of them prom¬
ised well at first, only to prove inadequate in the end. Reluc¬
tantly, I came back upon an idea on which I had worked long
before. It was to replace the ordinary brushes and commu¬
tator segments, by fluid contacts. I had encountered difficulties
then, but the intervening years in the laboratory were not
spent in vain, and I made headway. First it was necessary to
provide for a circulation of the fluid, but forcing it through
by a pump, proved itself impractical. Then the happy idea
presented itself to make the pumping device an integral part of
the circuit interrupter, inclosing both in a receptacle to pre¬
vent oxydation. Next some simple ways of maintaining the cir¬
culation, as by rotating a body of mercury, presented them¬
selves. Then I learned how to reduce the wear and lpsses which
still existed. I fear that these statements, indicating how much
effort was spent in these seemingly insignificant details will not
convey a high idea of my ability, but I confess that my patience
was taxed to the utmost. Finally, though, I had the satisfaction
of producing devices which are simple and reliable in their ope¬
ration, which require practically no attention and which are
capable of effecting a transformation of considerable amounts
of energy with fair economy. It is not the best that can be done,
by any means, but it is satisfactory, and I feel that the hardest
•task is done.
The physician will now be able to obtain an instrument suit¬
able to fulfil many requirements. He will be able to use it in
electro-therapeutic treatment in most of the ways enumerated.
He will have the facility of providing himself with coils such
as he may desire to have for any particular purpose, which will
give him any current or any pressure he may wish to obtain.
Such coils will consist of but a few turns of wire, and the ex¬
pense of preparing them will be quite insignificant. The instru¬
ment will also enable him to generate Rontgen rays of much
greater power than obtainable with ordinary apparatus. A tube
must still be furnished by the manufacturers which will not
deteriorate and which will allow to concentrate larger amounts
of energy upon the electrodes. When this is done, nothing will
stand in the way of an extensive and efficient application of
this beautiful discovery which must ultimately prove itself of the
highest value, not only at the hands of the surgeon, hut also
of the electro-therapist and, what is most important, of the bac¬
teriologist.
To give a general idea of an instrument in which many of
* the latter improvements are embodied, I would refer to Fig. 9,
which illustrates the chief parts of the same in side elevation
and partially in vertical cross-section. The arrangement of the
parts is the same as in the form of instrument exhibited on
former occasions, only the exciting-coil with the vibrating in¬
terrupter is replaced by one of the improved circuit breakers
to which reference has been made.
This device comprises a casting A with a protruding sleeve
B, which in a bushing supports a freely rotatable shaft a. The
latter carries an armature within a stationary field magnet M
and on the top, a hollow iron pulley D, which contains the
break proper. Within the shaft a, and concentrically with the
same, is placed a smaller shaft b, likewise freely movable on
ball-bearings and supporting a weight E. This weight being
on one side and the shafts a and b inclined to the vertical, the
weight remains stationary as the pulley is rotated. Fastened to
the weight E is a device R in the form of a scoop with very
thin walls, narrow on the end nearer to the pulley and wider
on the other end. A small quantity of mercury being placed
in the pulley and the latter rotated against the narrow end of
the scoop, a portion of the fluid is taken up and thrown in a
thin and wide stream towards the centre of the pulley. The top
of the latter is hermetically closed by an iron washer, as shown,
this washer supporting on a steel rod L a disk F of the same
metal provided with a number of thin contact blades K. The
rod L is insulated by washers N from the pulley, and for the
convenience of filling in the mercury a small screw o is pro¬
vided. The bolt L forming one terminal of the circuit breaker
is connected by a copper strip to the primary p. The other end
of the primary coil leads to one of the terminals of the con¬
denser C, contained in a compartment of a box A, another com¬
partment of the same being reserved for switch S and terminals
of the instrument. The other terminal of the condenser is con¬
nected to the casting A and through it to pulley D. When
the pulley is rotated, the contact blades K are brought rapidly
in and out of contact with the stream of mercury, thus closing
and opening the circuit in quick succession. With such a device
it is easy to obtain ten thousand makes and breaks per second
and even more. The secondary s is made of two separate coils
and so arranged that it can be slipped out, and a metal strip in
its middle connects it to the primary coil. This is done to
prevent the secondary from breaking down when one of the
terminals is overloaded, as it often happens in working Rontgen
bulbs. This form of coil will withstand a very much greater
difference of potential than coils as ordinarily constructed.
The motor has both field and armature built of plates, so that
it can be used on alternating as well as direct current supply-
circuits, and the shafts are as nearly as possible vertical, so as
to require the least care in oiling. Thus, the only thing which
really requires some attention is the commutator of the motor,
but where alternating currents arc always available, this source
of possible trouble is easily done away with.
The circuit connections of the instrument have been already
shown and the mode of operation explained in periodicals. The
usual manner of connecting is illustrated in Fig. 8, in which
Ai Aj are the terminals of the supply circuit, L, a self-induc¬
tion coil for raising the pressure, which is connected in series
with condenser C and primary P P. The remaining letters
designate the parts correspondingly marked in Fig. 9 and will
be understood with' reference to the latter.
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taro or Corfu, most of which lie up for several
hours at each of the main island-harbors. In
the end we decided, as we had done on sev¬
eral previous occasions, to try all the various
ways among us, magnanimously assuming an
unlimited liability for one another’s impressions.
It is a method which must be used with cau¬
tion unless you know your partners very well.
The only two guide-books of the Dalmatian
coast which we had been able to procure in Vi¬
enna —that of Joanne and that of Hartleben—
are in flagrant opposition to each other about
most of the facts concerning the islands; and
the sequel will show how near we ourselves
came to finding what either of them had led us
to expect.
The conclusion which we were finally forced
to adopt was that neither of these authorities
had visited the archipelago in person. _ They
appear instead to have adopted the simpler
plan of allowing “thought to play freely,” in
the words of Matthew Arnold, around some
ancient series of prints of the Dalmatian coast
and islands, idealized as it used to be thought
obligatory to idealize in the days of Adam and
Chapuy. At Lesina, for example, upon the
island of the same name, a cheery, peaceful, and
most inviting town, with an exquisite loggia
fronting the principal quay, aharmless little cita¬
del, and an amphitheater of softly swelling hills,
we had been prepared for an effetprodigieux
of precipitous peaks and frowning fortresses. .
At Curzola we were gravely informed by Jo¬
anne that we should find among other striking
objects, all going to make up “ a stage effect of
the most surprising,” . . . “ an ancient bridge
carried upon arches tall enough to admit the
passage of full-masted barks.” Will it be be¬
lieved that there is not only no such bridge,
but no tradition of any bridge whatever in the
neighborhood of Curzola ? The nearest ap¬
proach is an extremely modest viaduct crossing
a dry ditch, which it may once have been possi¬
ble to flood, to a gateway in the fine town wall.
A favorite word both with Hartleben and
Joanne, in depicting the aspect of the islands,
is amazing — “ iiberraschend ”— “ surprenant."
But it is when one comes to compare their de¬
scriptions with the reality that the amazement
properly comes in. Hartleben even goes so
far as to give striking prints both of the bridge
at Curzola and the beetling crags of Lesina;
and the reader may find it amusing to com¬
pare his illustrations with the sketches of our
own artist, who waves the banner and shouts
DRAWN BY JOSEPH PENNELL.
_ 1
916 TESLA'S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS.
the watchword of Realism, in season and out of
season, and is therefore bound to be veracious.
Meanwhile one of the prettiest and most
characteristic features of Curzola, an extensive
ship-yard overshadowed by venerable trees,
where half the trading-boats that ply in these
waters are constructed, seems to have escaped
the notice of the guide-book makers altogether.
Nor have they cared to let their fancy “ play ”
to any great extent about either Lissa or Mel-
eda, though each of these islands has interest¬
ing associations. It was off the former that the
first proud navy of United Italy sustained so
(To be c
crushing a defeat at the hands of Admiral Te-
getthoff in 1866, the bodies that were recov¬
ered after that fierce engagement having been
all interred in the peaceful Campo Santo there;
while Meleda, the southernmost of the four
islands, prefers a plausible claim to have been
the scene of St. Paul’s shipwreck. For are we
not explicitly informed that the island to which
he escaped was called Melita ? And our hearts
will henceforth swell with a new sympathy for
the apostle to the Gentiles whenever we read
that the disaster took place after he had been
“ driven up and down in Adria.”
itinued.)
Harriet Waters Preston.
TESLA’S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS.
AN AUTHORITATIVE ACCOUNT OF SOME OF HIS RECENT ELECTRICAL WORK . 1
KOBELEFF,thegreat Russian thankful, we may safely assume that elec-
general, once said of the political tricity has reached another of those crucial
conditions in Central Asia, that points at which it becomes worth the while of
they changed every moment; the casual outside observer to glance at what
hence thenecessity for vigilance, is going on. To the timid and the conserva-
no less the price of empire than tive, even to many initiated, these new depar-
of liberty. Thus changeful, also, is the aspect tures have indeed become exasperating. They
of that vast new electrical domain which the demand the unlearning of established facts, and
thought and invention of our age have subdued, insist on right-about-faces that disregard philo-
They who would inform themselves expertly sophical dignity. The sensations of a dog at-
about it, in whatever respect, must ever keep up tempting to drink sea-water after a lifetime
an attitude of strained attention. Its theoretical spent on inland lakes are feeble compared with
problems assume novel phases daily. Its old ap- those of men who discover that electricity is
pliances ceaselessly give way to successors. Its quite other than the fluid which they have be-
methods of production, distribution, and utiliza- lieved it to be from their youth up, and that
tion varyfrom yearto year. Its influence on the actually there is no such thing as electricity or
times is ever deeper, yet one can never be quite an electric current.
sure into what part of the social or industrial Electricity has, indeed, taken distinctively
system it is next to thrust a revolutionary force, new ground of late years ; and its present state
Its fanciful dreams ofyesterday are the magnifi- of unrest — unsurpassed, perhaps, in other re¬
cent triumphs of to-morrow, and its advance gions of research — is due to recent theory and
toward domination in the twentieth century is practice, blended in a striking manner in the
as irresistible as that of steam in the nineteenth, discoveries of Mr. Nikola Tesla, 2 who, though
Throughout this change there has prevailed not altogether alone, has come to be a fore-
a consistency of purpose : a steady aim has most and typical figure of the era now begun,
been leveled at definite goals; while useful He invites attention to-day, whether for pro¬
arts in multitude attest the solidity of the work found investigations into the nature of elec-
done. If, therefore, we find a tremendous out- tricity, or for beautiful inventions in which is
burst of activity at the very moment when, offered a concrete embodiment of the latest
after twenty-five, years of superlative produc- means for attaining the ends most sought after
tiveness, electricians were ready, with the re- in the distribution of light, heat, and power,
forming English statesman, to rest and be and in the distant communication of intelli-
1 The photographs reproduced in this article were 2 A biographical sketch of Mr. Tesla, by the pres-
taken, under the special direction of the inventor, by ent writer, with portrait, appeared in The Century
Tonnele & Co. f or February, 1894.— Editor.
TESLA'S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS. 917
gence. Any one desirous of understanding the
trend and scope of modem electrical advance
will find many clues in the work of this inven¬
tor. The present article discloses a few of the
more important results which he has attained,
some of the methods and apparatus which he
employs, and one or two of the theories to
which he resorts for an explanation of what is
accomplished.
By a brief preliminary survey, we may de¬
termine our historical longitude and latitude,
and thus ascertain a little more precisely where
we are. It is necessary to recapitulate facts
known and accepted. Let it, then, be remarked
that aside from the theories and interpretations
that have beset the science, electricity as an
art has for three hundred years been directed
chiefly to securing an abundant, cheap, effi¬
cient, and economical supply of the protean
agency, be it what it may. Frictional machine,
Leyden jar, coil, battery, magnet, dynamo, os -1
cillator,— these are but the steps in a process
as regular and well-defined as those which take
us from the aboriginal cradling of gold out of
river sands up to the refining of ore with all the
appliances of modern mechanism and chem¬
istry. Each stage in electrical evolution has
seen the conquest of some hitherto unknown
art — electrotherapy, telegraphy, telephony,
electric lighting, electric heating, power trans¬
mission ; yet each has had limitations set on
it by the conditions prevailing. With a mere
battery much can be done; with a magnet, still
more; with a dynamo, we touch possibilities of
all kinds, for we compel the streams, the coal¬
fields, and the winds to do us service: but with
Mr. Tesla’s new oscillator we may enlist even
the ether-waves, and turn our wayward re¬
cruits into resistless trained forces, sweeping
across continents of unimagined opportunity.
The dynamo, slowly perfected these fifty
years, has rendered enormous benefits, and is
destined to much further usefulness. But all
that we learn now about it of any intrinsic
value is to build it bigger, or to specialize it;
and the moment a device reaches that condi¬
tion of development, the human intellect casts
about for something else in which the elements
are to be subtler and less gross. Based upon
currents furnished by modern dynamo-electric
machines, the arc-light and the trolley-car seek
to monopolize street illumination and transpor¬
tation, while the incandescent lamp has pre¬
empted for exclusive occupancy the interiors
of our halls and homes. Yet the abandonment
of gas, horses, and sails is slow, because the
dynamo and its auxiliaries have narrow boun¬
daries, trespassing which, they cease to offer
any advantage. We can all remember the high
hopes with which, for example, incandescent
lighting was introduced some fifteen years ago.
Even the most cynical detractor of it will ad¬
mit that its adoption has been quick and wide¬
spread; but as a simple matter of fact, to-day,
all the lamps and all the lighting dynamos in the
country would barely meet the needs of New
York and Chicago if the two cities were to use
no other illuminant than electricity. In all Eng¬
land there are only 1,750,000 incandescent
lamps contesting for supremacy with probably
75,000,000 gas-burners, and the rate of increase
is small, if indeed it exceeds that of gas. Evi¬
dently, some factor is wanting, and a new
point of departure, even in mere commercial
work, is to be sought, so that with longer circuits,
better current-generating apparatus, and lamps
that will not burn out, the popular demand for
a pure and perfect light can be met. In power
transmission, also, unsatisfied problems of equal
magnitude crop up. “ Is there any load that
water cannot lift ? ” asked Emerson. “ If there
be, try steam; or if not that, try electricity. Is
there any exhausting of these means ? ” None,
provided that our mechanics be right.
It must not be supposed that the new elec¬
tricity is iconoclastic. In the minds of a great
many people of culture the idea prevails that
invention is as largely a process of pulling down
as of building up; and electricity, in spreading
from one branch of industry to another, en¬
counters the prejudice that always rebuffs the
innovator. The assumption is false. It may
be true that in the gladiatorial arena where
the principles of science contend, one party or
the other always succumbs and drags out its
dead; but in the arts long survival is the law
for all the appliances that have been found of
any notable utility. It simply becomes a ques¬
tion of the contracting sphere within which
the old apparatus is hedged by the advent of
the new; and that relation once established
by processes complex and long continued, ca¬
pable even of mathematical determination, the
two go on together, complementary in their
adjustment to specific human needs. In its
latest outgrowths, electrical application exem¬
plifies this. After many years’ use of dynamo-
electric machinery giving what is known as a
« continuous current,” the art has reached the
conclusion that only with the “ alternating cur¬
rent ” can it fulfil the later duties laid upon it,
and accomplish the earlier tasks that remain
untouched. With the continuous current we
have learned the rudiments of lighting and
power distribution. With the alternating cur¬
rent, manipulated and coaxed to yield its
highest efficiency, we may solve the problems
of aerial and marine navigation by electricity,
operate large railway systems, transmit the en¬
ergy of Niagara hundreds of miles, and, in Mr.
Tesla’s own phrase, “ hook our machinery di¬
rectly to that of Nature.”
918
TESLA'S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS.
THE GENERATION OF CURRENT.
Let us see wherein lies the difference be¬
tween these two kinds of currents. In all
dynamos the generation of what we call elec¬
tric current is effected by the whirling of coils
of wire in front of magnets, or conversely.
The wires that lead away from the machine
and back to it to complete the necessary cir¬
cuit, may be compared to a circle of troughs
or to a pipe-line; the coils and magnets are
comparable to pump mechanism; and the
lamps or motors driven by the current, to
fountains or faucets spaced out on the trough
circle. This comparison is crudity itself, but
it gives a fairly exact idea. The current travels
along the surface of the wire rather than in¬
side, its magnetic or ether whorls resembling
rubber bands sliding along a lead-pencil. A
machine that produces continuous current,
dipping its wire coils or buckets into the mag¬
netic field of force, has all its jets, as they come
around to discharge themselves, headed one
way, and complicated devices called “ commu¬
tators ” have been unavoidable for the purpose
of “ rectifying ” them. A machine that pro¬
duces alternating currents, on the contrary,
has its jets thrown first into one end of the
trough system, and then into the other, and
therefore dispenses with the rectifying or com¬
mutating valves. On the other hand, it re¬
quires peculiar adjustment of its fountains and
faucets to the streams rushing in either way.
It is an inherent disadvantage of the continu¬
ous-current system that it cannot deliver energy
successfully at any great distance at high pres¬
sure, and that therefore the pipe-line must be
relatively as bulky as were the hollow wooden
logs which were once employed for water-con¬
duits in New York. The advantage of the alter¬
nating current is that it can be delivered at ex¬
ceedingly high pressures oyer very slender wires,
and used either at that pressure or at lower or
higher ones, obtained by means of a “ trans¬
former,” which, according to its use, answers
both to the idea of a magnetic reducing valve,
and to that of a spring-board accelerating the
rapidity of motion of any object alighting on it.
Obviously a transformer cannot return more
than is put into it, so that it gives out the cur¬
rent received with less pressure but in greater
volume, or raised in pressure but diminished in
the volume of the stream. In some like manner
a regiment of soldiers may be brought by ex¬
press to any wharf, and transferred, Indian file,
to a sailing barge or an ocean liner indiffer¬
ently ; but throughout the trip the soldiers will
constitute the same regiment, and when picked
up by another train across the ferry, the body,
though there be loss by desertion and sickness,
will retain its identity, even if the ranks are
broken in filling the cars, and are reformed
four abreast at the end of the journey.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS.
Let us, still recapitulating familiar facts,
make the next step in our review of what is in¬
volved in the resort to alternating currents. It
was stated above that the current-consuming
devices such as motors, likened to fountains,
needed peculiar adjustments to the inflow first
from one side and then from the other. Not to
put it at all too strongly, they would not work,
and have largely remained inoperative to the
present time. Lamps would burn, but mo¬
tors would not run, and this fact limited seri¬
ously the adoption and range of the otherwise
flexible and useful alternating current until Mr.
Tesla discovered a beautiful and unsuspected
solution of the problem, and thus embarked on
one part of the work now revealing grander
possibilities eveiy day. The transmission of
the power of Niagara has become possible since
the discovery of the method. In his so-called
“ rotating magnetic field,” a pulley mounted
upon a shaft is perpetually running after a mag¬
netic “ pole ” without ever being able to catch
it. The fundamental idea is to produce mag¬
netism shifting circularly, in contrast with the
old and known phenomenon of magnetism in
a fixed position. Those who have seen the pa¬
tient animal inside the treadmill wheel of the
well at Carisbrooke Castle can form an idea of
the ingenuity of Mr. Tesla’s plan.
Ordinarily, alternating-current generators,
such as are now in common use, have a great
number of projecting poles to cause the al¬
ternations of current, and hence their “fre¬
quency” is high—that is, the current makes a
great many to-and-fro motions per second,
and each ebb-and-fiow in the circuit is termed
the “ period ” or “ frequency,” one alterna¬
tion being the rise from zero to maximum
value and down to nothing again, and the
other the same thing backward. If we ruled
a horizontal straight line, and then drew a
round-bellied Hogarth curve of beauty across
it, the half of the curve above the line would
be illustrative of the positive flow, the lower
half of the negative flow; the top of one oval
and the bottom of the other oval would be the
positive and negative maxima respectively;
and the point where the curve crossed the
straight line would mark the instant when the
current changes its direction. A swinging
pendulum is an analogy favored by scientists
in their endeavors to illustrate popularly the
process of the generation of the alternating
current. Each time the copper wire in the
coils on the dynamo armature is rotated past
the pole of the dynamo field, the currents in each
coil follow this rise and fall; so that the number
TESLA’S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS.
of the magnets and coils determines the period
or frequency, as stated. The more numerous the
magnets, andthefasterthe rotation of the coils,
the quicker will be the ebbs and flows of cur¬
rent. But the character of the work to be done,
and existing conditions, govern the rate at
which the current is thus to be set vibrating;
and no small amount of skill and knowledge
enters here. The men who can predicate the
right thing to do are still few and far between.
The field has as yetbeen little explored. More¬
over, in one of the deepest problems now
engaging the thought of electrical engineers,—
namely,the production of cheap light an d cheap
power by these new means,— opposite condi¬
tions pull different ways. Mr. Tesla made up
his mind some time ago that for motor work
it was better to have few frequencies; and the
whole drift of power transmission is on that path,
the frequency adopted for the work at Niagara
being only twenty-five. But, as was natural, he
ran through the whole scale of low and high fre¬
quencies, and soon discovered that for obtain¬
ing light, one great secret lay in the utilization
of currents of high frequency and high poten¬
tial. Some years ago, after dealing with the
power problem as above described, Mr. Tesla
attacked the light problem by building a num¬
ber of novel alternating-current generators for
the purpose, and attained with them alternations
up to 30,000 per second. These machines tran¬
scended anything theretofore known in the art,
and their currents were furtherraised in pressure
by “step up” transformers and condensers. But
these dynamos had their shortcomings. The
number of the poles and coils could not be in¬
definitely increased, and there was a limit to the
speed. To go to the higher frequencies, there¬
fore, Mr. Tesla next invented his “disruptive
discharge coil,” which permitted him to reach
remarkably high frequency and high pressure,
and, what is more, to obtain these qualities
from any ordinary current, whether alternating
or continuous. With this apparatus he sur¬
prised the scientists both of this country and of
Europe in a series of most interesting demon¬
strations. It is not too much to say that these
experiments marked an epoch in electricity,
yielding results which lie at the root of his later
work with the oscillator in an inconceivably
wider range of phenomena.
THE TESLA OSCILLATOR.
Up to this point we have been considering
both continuous-current and alternating-cur¬
rent dynamos as driven by the ordinary steam-
engine. Perhapsnine tenths of all the hundreds
of thousands of dynamos in the world to-day
are so operated, the remainder being driven by
water-wheels, gas-engines, and compressed air.
9x9
Now, each step from consuming the coal under
the boilers that deliver steam to the engines, up
to the glow of the filament in an incandescent
lamp, is attended with loss. As in every other
cycle that has to do with heat transformation, the
energy is more or less frittered away, just as in
July the load in an iceman’s cart crumbles and
melts in transit along the street. Actual tests
prove that the energy manifesting itself as light in
an incandescent lamp is barely five per cent, of
that received as current. In the luminosity of a
gas flame the efficiency is even smaller. Profes¬
sor Tyndall puts the useful light-waves of a gas
flame at less than one per cent, of all the waves
caused by the combustion going on in it. If we
were dealing with a corrupt city government,
such wretched waste and inefficiency would not
be tolerated; an din sad reality the extravagance
is but on a par with the wanton destruction of
whole forests for the sake of a few sticks of lum¬
ber. Armies of inventors have flung themselves
on the difficulties involved in these barbaric
losses occurring at every stage of the calorific,
mechanical, and electric processes; and it is in¬
deed likely that many lines of improvement
have already been compelled to yield their
utmost, reaching terminal forms. A moment’s
thought will show that one main object must
be the elimination of certain steps in the trans¬
fer of the energy; and obviously, if engine and
dynamo both have large losses, it will be a gain
to merge the two pieces of apparatus. The old-
fashioned electric-light station or street-railway
power-house is a giddy maze of belts and shaft¬
ing; in the later plants engine and dynamo are
coupled directly together on one base. This is
a notable stride, but it still leaves us with a
dynamo in which some part of the wire wound
on it is not utilized at every instant, and with
an engine of complicated mechanism. The
steam-cylinder, with its piston, is the only thing
actually doing work, and all the rest of the im¬
posing collection of fly-wheel, governor-balls,
eccentrics, valves, and what not, is for the pur¬
pose of control and regulation.
In his oscillator Mr. Tesla, to begin with, has
stripped the engine of all this governing mech¬
anism. By giving also to the coils in which
the current is created as they cut the “lines of
force ” of the magnets, a to-and-fro or recipro¬
cating motion, so that the influence on them is
equal in every direction, he has overcome the
loss of the idle part of the wire experienced
in rotating armatures; and, moreover, greatest
achievement of all, he has made the currents
regulate the mechanical motions. No matter
how close the governing of the engine that
drives the ordinary dynamo, with revolving ar¬
mature, there is some irregularity in the genera¬
tion of current. In the Tesla oscillator, if its in¬
ventor and the evidence of one’s eyes may be
920
TESLA’S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS.
O
H
o
—
Hf[{[li||||!Hlll
iMlmi
f mu 11
o
o
h ^4. for experiment® 1 purposes, with of the intense • nciu oi iorce a
devSoDe/h?the mfrW r n C p'«:hiw!, U fn r ^ e r S col^ pr i n - Cip ir® of °R erat >9 n , further thus engendered in them, which are led ofl' to the exterior circuit for
isusedPas theorSJfelHn^ f™ nEnc! r,fTirl g ' 2 ’ In ' vhich stea, . n use - These currents are “ alternating ” in their character, and are of hi
_ usea as rne pi opening iorce. Outermost of all is seen the matrnet-ir reo-nlnnMr
shaft A, which runs through the piston P, and they,
with the shaft, , have additional bearings in the
boxes B B at each end of the mechanism. The piston
P is fitted into the hollow of the cylinder C, which
in turn is inclosed by a jacket J, the latter serving
chiefly to deaden the sound caused in working. The
piston P is provided with channel-ports O O and I,
which extend all around its inside surface. I is the inlet
for the propelling compressed air, and O O are the out¬
lets for the expanded air after its work is done at each
stroke. In the piston P there are also two slots S S',
while tubes T T are screwed into holes drilled in the
piston. These tubes T T establish communication be¬
tween the slots S S' and the chambers seen on each side
of the piston, each chamber being thus connected with
the slot which is remote from it. Now, the compressed
air being brought through a delivery-pipe to the inlet I,
with the piston P in the position it occupies in the dia-
gram, a nd the shaft A being slightly touched so as to
slide it a little to the left, the compressed air rushes
through the slot S' and its communicating tube T, out
into the chamber on the left of the piston. The pressure
thus encountered by the piston on the left, from the ex¬
panding air, drives it back toward the right. Owing to its
inertia, the piston thus impelled overshoots the position
of equilibrium, allowing in this way the next supply of
compressed air to rush from the inlet I into slot S and its
tubeT, and from them into the chamber on the right of
the piston. Meantime the communication to the left-
hand chamber is cut off, and the now expanded air there,
having instantly done its work, escapes through the
channel-port outlet O. As the piston now travels back
from the right on the return stroke, a precisely similar
operation takes place on the right-hand side of it, due to
the expanding of the compressed air there and its sub¬
sequent quick escape as exhaust. In this manner, so
long as compressed air is supplied, oscillation of the
piston P is maintained at a very high rate, and with
highest accuracy. The coils of fine wire mounted on shaft
A, to which the piston P is firmly attached, are thus rapidly
thrust to and fro by the shaft across the faces of, and in
the space inclosed by, the jaws of the electromagnets
at H H. In this manner they cut the so-called “ lines ”
1 field of force’’ at those two points, and currents are
.. ». J propelling force. Outermost of all is seen the magnetic
Irame M M, built up of thin sheet-iron. This frame is wound with ener¬
gizing coils of wire (indicated in hatchwork), as in ordinary electromag¬
nets, and thus an intense magnetic “ field of force ” is concentrated on
each side m the vicinity of H H, where are seen in dotted line two pairs of
armature coils moving between the jaws of the inclosing electromagnets
formed by M M. These armature coils, at H H, are supported on the
regularity. The maintenance of constancy of oscillation on the part of the
piston P is also due to the reaction and steadying effect of this electro¬
magnetic part of the combination. The “ fitting-boxes ” at the ends of the
cylinder C inclosing the piston project a carefully determined distance
into the cylinder, thus setting limits to the length of the stroke. It will be
obvious to those familiar with such matters that steam could also be used
in this type of oscillator, with slight adjustments.
FIG. I. DIAGRAM OF WORKING PARTS OF EARLY FORM OF TESLA OSCILLATOR, AS IF SEEN FROM ABOVE, IN SECTION.
(FROM “THP PTPTTPiriT PWriMlTlTD ’ ’ UV DITDMTPPTAV \
believed, the vibrations of the current are ab¬
solutely steady and uniform, so that one could
keep the time o’ day with the machine about as
well as with a clock. It was this superlative
steadiness of the vibration or frequency that
Mr. Tesla aimed at, for one thing. The varia¬
tions caused by the older apparatus might be
slight, but minute errors multiplied by high
rates of occurrence soon become perceptible,
and militate against desirable uniformity and
precision of action. Back of the tendencies to
irregularity in the old-fashioned electrical ap¬
paratus were the equal or greater tendencies
in the steam-engine; and over and above all
were the frightful losses due to the inefficient
conversion in both of the power released from
the fuel under the boiler generating the steam.
Gain in one direction with a radical innova¬
tion usually means gain in many others, through
a growing series. I confess I do not know
which of the advantages of the oscillator to
place first; and I doubt whether its inventor
has yet been able to sit down and sum up all
the realities and possibilities to which it is a
key. One thing he does: he presses forward.
Our illustration, Fig. 2, shows one of his latest
forms of oscillator in perspective, while the dia¬
gram, Fig. 1, exhibits the internal mechanism
of one of the early forms. Fig. 2 will serve as a
text for the subsequent heads of discourse. The
steam-chest is situated on the bed-plate between
the two electromagnetic systems, each of which
consists of field coils between which is to move
the armature or coil of wire. There are two
pistons to receive the impetus of the incoming
steam in the chest, and in the present instance
steam is supplied at a pressure of 350 pounds,
although as low as 80 is also used in like oscil¬
lators, where steam of the higher pressure is not
obtainable. We note immediately the absence
of all the governing appliances of the ordinary
engine. They are non-existent. The steam-
chest is the engine, bared to the skin like a prize¬
fighter, with every ounce counting. Besides
easily utilizing steam at a remarkably high pres¬
sure, the oscillator holds it under no less re¬
markable control, and, strangest of all, needs
no packing to prevent leak. It is a fair infer¬
ence, too, that, denuded in this way of super¬
fluous weight and driven at high pressure, the
engine must have an economy far beyond the
common. With an absence of friction due to
the automatic cushioning of the light working
parts, it is also practically indestructible. More¬
over, for the same pressure and the same pis¬
ton speed the engine has about one thirtieth
or one fortieth of the usual weight, and occu¬
pies a proportionately smaller space. This dim¬
inution of bulk and area is equally true of the
electrical part. The engine-pistons carry at
their ends the armature coils, and these they
thrust reciprocatively in and out of the mag¬
netic field of the field coils, thus generating cur¬
rent by their action.
U M *3 fcs & ffi’ ta' la >3 83 e es a (3 a a a a a a ts o o a a a eg os 0 0 0 b 0 a a a 13 a a a m a a m et ra a aooa m a n n
If one watches any dynamo, it will be seen
that the coils constituting the “ armature ” are
swung around in front of magnets, very much
as a turnstile revolves inside the barricading
posts; and the current that goes out to do work
on the line circuit is generated inductively in
the coils, because they cut lines of influence
emanating from the ends of the magnets, and
forming what has been known since Faraday’s
time as the “ field of force.” In the Tesla os¬
cillator, the rotary motion of the coils is en-
Vol. XLIX.—116.
tirely abandoned, and they are simply darted
to and fro at a high speed in front of the mag¬
nets, thus cutting the lines of the “field of
force ” by shooting in and out of them very
rapidly, shuttle-fashion. The great object of
cutting as many lines of an intense field of force
as swiftly, smoothly,regularly, andeconomically
as possible is thus accomplished in a new and,
Mr. Tesla believes, altogether better way. The
following description of remarkable new phe¬
nomena in electricity will justify him in regard-
FIG. 2. LATEST FORM OF TESLA OSCILLATOR, COMBINING IN ONE MECHANISM DYNAMO AND STEAM-ENGINE.
FIG. 3. FIRST PHOTOGRAPH EVER TAKEN BY PHOSPHORESCENT LIGHT. THE FACE IS THAT OF MR. TESLA, AND THE
SOURCE OF LIGHT IS ONE OF HIS PHOSPHORESCENT BULBS. TIME OF EXPOSURE, EIGHT MINUTES.
DATE OF PHOTOGRAPH JANUARY, 1894.
ing the oscillatoras an extremely valuable instru¬
ment of research, while time will demonstrate
its various commercial and industrial benefits.
Incidentally it may be remarked that the
crude idea of obtaining currents by means of
a coil or a magnetic core attached to the piston
of a reciprocating steam-engine, is not in itself
an entire novelty. It may also be noted that
steam-turbines of extremely high rotative ve¬
locity are sometimes used instead of slow-mov¬
ing engines to drive dynamos. But in the first
class of long-abandoned experiments no prac¬
tical result of any kind was ever reached before
by any sort of device; and in the second class
there is the objection that the turbine is driven
by means of isolated shocks that cannot be over¬
come by any design of the blades, and which
frustrate any attempts to perform work of the
kind now under survey. What we are dealing
with here is a dual, interacting machine, half
mechanical, half electrical, of smallest bulk, ex¬
tremely simple, utilizing steam under conditions
unquestionably of the highest efficiency, its vi¬
brations independent of load and pressure, de¬
livering currents of the greatest regularity ever
known for practical work or research. That
922
such a combination should produce electricity
for half the consumption of steam previously
necessary with familiar apparatus in equivalent
results, need not surprise us; yet think how
much a saving of that kind would mean in well-
nigh every industry consuming power!
THE OSCILLATOR AND THE PRODUCTION OF
LIGHT.
Having obtained with the oscillator currents
of high potential, high frequency, and high reg¬
ularity, what shall be done with them ? Mr.
Tesla having already grappled successfully
with the great difficulties of long distance power
transmission, as narrated above, has first an¬
swered that question by boldly assailing the
problem of the production of light in a man¬
ner nearer, perhaps, to that which gives us sun¬
shine than was ever attempted before. Be¬
tween us and the sun stretches the tenuous,
sensitive ether, and every sensation of light that
the eye experiences is caused by the effect of
five hundred trillions of waves every second
impressed on the ether by the molecular energy
of the sun traveling along it rhythmically. If
fcj a M In fc; KS tt B a (9 B K fsBGliOd U3 fcj C3 a 0 0 (3 E3 S3 (3 E3 09 (3 0 0 a 0 0 BBB0
eret ESI o a a in a n a a a a o o tnr? i
- . -_ if -_
TESLA'S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS. g23
So e o,r™ iroAoTh!iyJKSSnE ° n * ““f™, “ *>“ «'»• which will be
heat. In om artificial nSSSffiS t0 US 1 . a ? 0ugh the S lass of the bulb
we imitatively agitate the edrerl^ooX thl, J " Cther “ rather than as heat - The
the “wWchlr f UP rardy g6t ab ° Ve Si6V " * “ -ter S t0 ^ ^ * “**
in he^SdSfya^^SlSJaTeSS f N ° W *“ c ™ of ^gh
pitch or rapidity to cause the sensation of li JL leq “ enc L a ] ld hl g h potential, subjects the in-
At the upper end of t£w,SSrvibS J° them ’ and ’ ski PP in S some
of the ether is a high, shrilf and vet inaudihle in intermediate wasteful heat stages of
g , Mini, ana yet inaudible lower wave vibration experienced in the old
- .A:
■ '-IN/.
. tKy ;-i - ■
NNsT
■
:■ .3 '-.lb
BP
■
•>v<
■Ti-m-'m
fo-A i.
'mi
FIG. 4. PHOSPHOGRAPH OF MR. CLEMENS (MARK- twithI
time OF EXPOSUKE,’ TEN E m1NUtJs HE TESLA LAE0!!AT0RY JANUARY. 1894.
note,—“light,”—which we wan t to strike and to
keep on striking; but we fumble at the lower
bass end of the instrument all the time, and
never touch that topmost note without wasting
the largest part of our energy on the interme¬
diate ones, which we do not at all wish to touch.
Light (the high note) without heat (the lower
notes) is the desideratum. The inefficiency of
the gas name has been mentioned. In the or-
dinary incandescent lamp the waste is not so
great; but even there the net efficiency of any
one hundred units of energy put into it as elec¬
tric current is at the most five or six of light
the waste occurring in the process of setting the
molecules of the filament and the little air left
m the bulb into the state of vibration under
which they must work before they can throw
methods, gets the ether-charged molecules
more quickly into the intensely agitated con¬
dition necessary to yield light. Using his cur¬
rents, produced electromagnetically, as we have
seen, to load each fugitive molecule with its
charge, which it receives and exercises electro¬
statically, he gets the ether medium into a state
of excitement in which it seems to become
capable of almost anything. In one of his first
lectures, Mr. Tesla said:
Electrostatic effects are in many ways available
for the production of light. F or instance, we may
place a body of some refractory material in a
closed, and preferably in a more or less air-
exhausted, globe, connect it to a source of high,
rapidly alternating potential, causing the mole¬
cules of the gas to strike it many times a second
o Q & a q q
1 « 9 f=J G) 44 « mi e, c
ej £4 ej .s, ^ ^
^ <5? C3
qs,qt ls w n n.4 n n
^. s 5 ? R R
^ P? - q q q
^ R q c
P=». «=» .FT<=p R p.s
TESLA’S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS.
9 2 4
at enormous speeds, and in this way, with tril¬
lions of invisible hammers, pound it until it gets
incandescent. Or we may place a body in a very
highly exhausted globe, and by employing very
high frequencies and potentials maintain it at
any degree of incandescence. Or we may dis¬
turb the ether carried by the molecules of a gas,
or their static charges, causing them to vibrate
or emit light.
These anticipatory statements are confirmed
to-day by what Mr. Tesla has actually done in
one old way revolutionized, and in three new
thick, for it will rapidly reach and steadily
maintain proper incandescence by the passage
of a small current of the right high frequency
and potential. An action is set up as the result
of which the filament is hit millions of times a
second by the bombardment of the molecules
around it in a merciless ring of tormentors.
The vibrations of the current in similar man¬
ner will cause the infinite jostling of the mole¬
cules of solid and gas against a small polished
carbon or metallic button or bar in a lamp, and
brilliant light is also obtainable in this way.
LIGHT AND PHOTOGRAPHS WITH
TESLA PHOSPHORESCENT BULBS.
FIG. 5.
THREE PHOSPHORESCENT BULBS UNDER TEST FOR ACTINIC VALUE.
PHOTOGRAPHED BY THEIR OWN LIGHT.
ways: (1) the incandescence of a solid; (2)
phosphorescence; (3) incandescence or phos¬
phorescence of a rarefied gas; and (4) luminosity
produced in a gas at ordinary pressure.
LAMPS WITH BUTTONS OR BARS IN PLACE
OF FILAMENTS.
Taking lamps in the first category, it may
be stated that it had been commonly supposed
that the light-giving conductor in the lamp, to
be efficient and practical, should be line; hence
the name “ filament ” given to the carbon loop
in such lamps. But with the Teslaic currents
the resistance or friction of the filament to the
flow of current does not count for anything:
the filament may just as well be short and
In the field of lighting by phos¬
phorescence we reach hitherto un¬
trodden ground. Phosphorescent
light has been associated with the
idea of “ cold light,” or the prop¬
erty of becoming luminous with
the omission of the intermediate
step of combustion, as commonly
understood. As a physical action,
we know it in the light of the firefly,
which Professor S. P. Langley rates
at an efficiency of 100 per cent.,
all its radiations lying within the
limits of the visible spectrum. By
means of the Teslaic currents phos¬
phorescent light strong enough
even to photograph by has been
obtained; and Fig. 3, representing
the inventor himself, is the first
portrait or photograph of any kind
ever taken by phosphorescent
light. A bulb whose light-giving
member is coated with sulphide of
zinc treated in a special way was
rendered phosphorescent by means
of current obtained from a high-
frequency transformer coil. The
current used was alternated or os¬
cillated about 10,000 times per second. The
exposure was about eight minutes.
Fig. 4, of Mr. Clemens (Mark Twain), was
taken a few weeks later — early in 1894 — with
the aid of the same bulb, and with an exposure
of about ten minutes. In order to test more
closely the actinic valueofphosphorescentlight,
some bulbs subject to high-frequency currents
were photographed, or, if we may coin a new
word, “ phosphographed,” with a somewhat
longer exposure. They are shown in Fig. 5. The
right-hand, bright pair utilize sulphide of zinc in
some form for luminosity. The third bulb,
seen faintly to the left of them, has a coating
of sulphide of calcium. Although, judged by
the eye, it glowed with a brightness fully equal
to that of the other two, the actinic value was
M u=* p=z 1=? t=i
. i=? is? 1=3 isit= 5 W|ssis?l=?l^
„ B B » US » «' S « ® « f? **« 63 60 « «' 13 * ” ” “ "
TESLA'S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS.
FIG. 6.
FIGS. 6, 7 , AND 8 ARE TESLA TUBES OF DIFFERENT FORMS IN
WHICH LIGHT IS OBTAINED WITHOUT FILAMENT OR COM¬
BUSTION. (PHOTOGRAPHED BY THEIR OWN LIGHT.)
trated. The bulbs shown are more or less ex¬
hausted of air. In the case of Figs. 6 and 7 the
glass of the tubes is the ordinary German glass.
In Fig. 8, uranium glass—green—was em¬
ployed. This last was held in the hand while
a photograph was taken of it by its own light;
whence the unsteadiness of the negative. To ob¬
tain the beautiful illumination seen in all three,
the bulbs were simply approached within a few
inches of the terminal of a high-frequency coil
or transformer. Just here it may be pointed out
that the lamps are spoken of as unattached,
in free space. Ordinary incandescent lighting
is done, as everybody knows, with the lamps’
bases firmly attached to the two current-bear¬
ing wires. Even where the lamps have been used
on the ordinary alternating circuits in which the
transformer is employed to “step.down,” or re¬
duce, for safe use, the higher-tension current
brought to it by the wire from the dynamo, the
lamps have to be attached to the “ secondary ”
wires of the coil so as to make a closed circuit for
LIGHT FROM EMPTY BULBS IN FREE SPACE.
The third and fourth classes of lighting enu¬
merated above as obtained by Teslaic currents
are those caused by the incandescence or phos¬
phorescence of a rarefied gas and the luminos¬
ity of a gas at ordinary pressure. We get pure,
beautiful light without any filament or any
combustion. In Figs. 6, 7, and 8 we have tubes
or bulbs by means of which some of these in¬
teresting phenomena are obtained and illus-
FIG. 8.
them. But as we rise in the frequency of the
current, as we leave behind the electrodynamic
conditions for the electrostatic ones, so we free
ourselves from the restrictions and limitations of
solid wires for the conveyance of the effects
sought, until at last we reach a point where all
the old ideas of the necessity of a tangible circuit
vanish. It is all circuit if we can properly direct
the right kind of impulses through it. As Mr.
Tesla long ago pointed out, most of the experi¬
ments usually performed with a static machine
of glass plates can also be performed with an in¬
duction-coil of wire if the currents are alter¬
nated rapidly enough; and it is in reality here
that Mr. Tesla parts company with other dis¬
tinguished workers who have fixed their at¬
tention merely on the results attainable with
electro dynamic apparatus. Before passing on,
let us quote the inventor himself:
evidently much less. It is, perhaps, needless
to say that these demonstrations invite to an
endless variety of experiments, in which inves¬
tigators will find a host of novel phenomena
awaiting them as to phosphorescence and fluo¬
rescence produced with electrical currents.
FIG. 7.
Powerful electrostatic effects are a sine qua non
of light production on the lines indicated by theory.
Electromagnetic effects are primarily unavailable,
for the reason that to produce the required effects
F? R R
'sj eg
v- ■ WAflVv ’■ • v/'-. .:
_
FIG. 9.
-
—
.^THB'cE^OpTT/oE^r 5 ^/^™ 5 ’ ™° DUCED ** EE ™ C “
ENERGIZING CIRCUIT. (FROM FLA.SH-LIGHT ’pHOTOGR°A N pH E r ED WI ™ ™ E
we would have to pass the current impulses through
a conductor which, long before the required fre¬
quency of the impulses could be reached, would
cease to transmit them. On the other hand, elec-
tromagnetic waves many times longer than’those
of light, and producible by sudden discharge of a
condenser, could not be utilized, it would seem
unless we availed ourselves of their effect upon con¬
ductors as in the present methods, which are waste¬
ful. We couldnotaffectby means of such waves the
static molecular or atomic charges of a gas, and
cause them to vibrate and to emit light. Long trans¬
verse waves cannot, apparently, produce such ef¬
fects, since excessively small electromagnetic dis¬
turbances may pass readily through miles of air.
such dark waves, unless they are of the length of
true light-waves, cannot, it would seem, excite lu¬
minous radiation in a Geissler tube, and the lumi-
926
nous effects which are producible by induction in a
tube devoid of electrodes, lam inclined to consider
as being of an electrostatic nature. To produce
such luminous effects straight electrostatic thrusts
are required; these, whatever be their frequency,
may disturb the molecular charges and produce
light.
EFFECTS WITH ATTUNED BUT WIDELY
SEPARATED CIRCUITS.
A few experiments performed in Mr. Tesla’s
laboratory workshop afford an idea of the flexi¬
bility of the methods by which powerful elec¬
trostatic effects are produced across many feet
of intervening space. The workshop is a room
about forty by eighty feet, and ten or twelve feet
H H W O t.'
TESLA'S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS
high. A circuit of small cable is carried around
it from the terminals of the oscillator. In the
center of the clear, open space is placed a coil,
wound drum fashion, three or four feet high,
and unconnected with the current source save
through the medium of the atmosphere. The
coil is provided, as shown in the picture, with
two condenser plates for adjustment, standing
up like cymbals. The plates act after the manner
ofa spring, and the coil is comparable to an elec¬
tromagnetic weight. The system of appara¬
tus in the middle of the room has therefore a
certain period of vibration, just as though it
were a tuning-fork, or a sheet of thin resonant
glass. Around the room, over the cable, there
are sent from the oscillator electrical current
vibrations. By carefully adjusting the con¬
denser plates so that the periodicity or swing
of the induced current is brought into step with
that of the cable currents, powerful sparks are
made to pour across between the plates in the
dense streams shown in Fig. 9. In this man¬
ner it is easy to reach tensions as high as 200,-
000 and 300,000 volts.
'No. one who has witnessed these significant
experiments can fail to be impressed with the
evidence of the actuality of a medium, call
it ether or what you will, which in spite of its
wonderful tenuity is as capable of transmitting
energy as though it were air or water. Still
more impressive to a layman, perhaps, is the
confidence arid easy precision with which these
fine adjustments are brought about.
In Fig. 10 there is a similar coil, in the mid¬
dle of the same room, which has been so ad¬
justed to the vibrations sent around the shop
that an ordinary sixteen-candle-power incan¬
descent lamp is well lighted up.
Fig. 11 pursues this a little further. Above
the coil a circle of wire is held by an observer,
and an incandescent lamp is attached to the
circle. As before, the vibration of the ether
in the coil is brought into harmony with the
vibrations emitted from the cable. The induc¬
tive effect upon the circle held loosely in free
space by the observer is so pronounced that the
lamp is immediately lighted up, though it may
be connected with but one terminal wire, or
with two. A ioo-volt lamp is used, requiring
when employed ordinarily more than one tenth
ofa horse-power right off the connecting circuit
wires direct from the dynamo to bring it up to
proper illuminating value. Hence, as will be
seen, there is actual proof here of the transmis¬
sion of at least that amount of energy across a
space of some twenty feet and into the bulb by
actually no wire at all. This need not surprise us
when we remember that on abright day the ether
delivers steadily from the sun a horse-power of
energy to every seven square feet of the earth’s
TESLA'S OSCILLATOR AND OTHER INVENTIONS.
928
surface toward it: so great is its capacity for
transmitting energy. Mr. Tesla with his “ elec¬
trostatic thrusts” has simply learned the knack
of loading electrically on the good-natured
ether a little of the protean energy of which
no amount has yet sufficed to break it down
or put it out of temper. We may assume either
an enormous speed in what may be called the
transmitting wheelwork of the ether, since the
weight is inconceivably small ; or else that the
ether is a mere transmitter of energy by its
well-nigh absolute incompressibility.
CURIOUS “ IMPEDANCE ” PHENOMENON.
In Fig. 12 we have another remarkable ex¬
periment illustrated. Standing over the coil in
HELD BY ME. MARION CRAWFORD. (FROM FLASH-LIGHT PHOTOGRAPH.)
ever, so extremely rapid that in spite of the
opposite terminals being united in this way,
the current does not flow past them neglect¬
fully, in the apparently easier path, as it should,
but brings them to a bright incandescence.’
We have here an example of what is known as
. impedance phenomena, in which the current
is oddlj choked back at certain points and not
at others. Under the conditions of “impe¬
dance,” the best electrical conductor loses its
property of conducting, and behaves like a
highly resisting substance. Elaborating further
these experimental results, Mr. Tesla shows
that a gas a perfect non-conductor under or¬
dinary circumstances—may be more conduc¬
tive than the best copper wire, pro vided the cur¬
rents vibrate rapidly enough. The fantastic side
of this phenomenon he touched
on playfully once by suggesting
that perchance in such wise we
might some day utilize gas to
convey electricity, and the old
gas-pipe to insulate it.
LAMPS LIGHTED BY CURRENTS
PASSED THROUGH THE /
HUMAN BODY.
In Fig. 13 a most curious and
weird phenomenon is illustrated.
A few years ago electricians
would have considered it quite
remarkable, if indeed they do
not now. The observer holds
a loop of bare wire in his hands.
The currents induced in the
loop by means of the “ resonat¬
ing ” coil over which it is held,
traverse the body of the ob¬
server, apd at the same time,
as they pass between his bare
hands, they bring two or three
lamps held there to bright in¬
candescence. Strange as it may
seem, these currents, of a volt¬
age one or two hundred times
as high as that employed in
electrocution, do not inconve¬
nience the experimenter in the
slightest. The extremely high
tension of the currents which
Mr. Clemens is seen receiving
prevents them from doing any
harm to him.
the center of the room, the observer holds a hoop
of stout wire in his hand. One or more lamps
are connected with two points on the wire, so
that the lamps are “ short-circuited ” by the
short bar of wire. The vibrations are, how-
TRANSMISSION OF INTELLIGENCE BY AT'
TUNED OR u RESONATING” CURRENTS.
Reference has been made to the “resonat¬
ing ” quality of the circuits and coils. It would be
T
SIMILAR EXPERIMENT, ILLUSTRATING THE PHENOMENON OF IMPEDANCE. THE LOOP OF WIRE, CARRYING TWO
LAMPS, IS HELD BY MR. JOSEPH JEFFERSON. (FROM FLASH-LIGHT PHOTOGRAPH.)
wearisome, and indeed is not necessary, here to
dwell on the difficulty often experienced in es¬
tablishing the relation of “ resonance,” and the
instantaneity with which it can be disturbed.
It may be stated, in order to give some idea of
the conditions to be observed in these experi¬
ments, that when an electric circuit is traversed
by a rapidly oscillating current which sets up
waves in the ether around the wire, the effect
of these waves upon another circuit situated at
some distance from the first can be largely
varied by proper adjustments. The effect is
most pronounced when the second circuit is so
adjusted that its period of vibration is the same
as that of the first. This harmonizing is deftly
accomplished by varying either of the two ele¬
ments which chiefly govern the rapidity of the
vibration, viz., the so- called “ capacity ” and the
“ self-induction.” Whatever the exact process
may be, it is clear that these two quantities in
their effect answer almost directly to what are
known in mechanics as pliability and as weight
or inertia. Attach to a spring a weight, and it
will vibrate at a certain rate. By changing the
weight, or modifying the pliability of the spring,
any period of vibration is obtainable. In very
exact adjustments, minute changes will com¬
pletely upset the balance, and the very last straw
Vol. XLIX.—117.
of fine wire, for example, in the induction-coil
which gives the self-induction will break the
spell. As Mr. Tesla has said, it is really a lucky
thing that pure resonance is not obtainable; for
if it were, all kinds of dangers might lie in store
for us by the increasing oscillations of every
kind that would be set up. It will, however,
have been gathered that if one electrical cir¬
cuit can be tuned to another effectively, we
shall need no return wire, as heretofore, for
motors or for lights, the one wire being, if
anything, better than two, provided we have
vibration of the right value; and if we have
that, we might get along without any wires
or any “currents.” Here again we must quote
Mr. Tesla:
In connection with resonance effects and the
problem of transmission of energy over a single
conductor, I would say a few words on a subject
which constantly fills my thoughts, and which con¬
cerns the welfare of all. I mean the transmission
of intelligible signals, or perhaps even power, to
any distance without the use of wires. I am be¬
coming daily more convinced of the practicability
of the scheme; and though I know full well that
the majority of scientific men will not believe that
such results can be practically and immediately
realized, yet I think that all consider the develop-
merits of recent years by a number of workers to
have been such as to encourage thought and ex¬
periment in this direction. My conviction has
grown so strong that I no longer look upon this
plan of energy or intelligence transmission as a
meie theoretical possibility, but as a serious prob¬
lem m electrical engineering which must be car¬
ried out some day. The idea of transmitting intel¬
ligence without wire is the natural outcome of
the most recent results of electrical investigations.
Some enthusiasts have expressed their belief that
telephony to any distance by induction through the
air is possible. 1 cannot stretch my imagination so
far; but I do firmly believe that it'is practicable to
disturb by means of powerful machines the elec¬
trostatic condition of the earth, and thus transmit
intelligible signals and perhaps power. In fact,
what is there against the carrying out of such a
scheme? We now know that electric vibration may
be transmitted through a single conductor. Why,
then, not try to avail ourselves of the earth for this
purpose ? We need not be frightened by the idea
of distance. To the weary wanderer counting the
mile-posts the earth may appear very large but
to that happiest of all men, the astronomer, who
gazes at the heavens, and by their standard judges
a e J na ^ n ^ l ?^ e of our globe, it appears very small.
And so I think it must seem to the electrician; for
when he considers the speed with which an elec-
t™ disturbance is propagated through the earth,
all his ideas of distance must completely vanish
A Point of great importance would befirsttoknow
what is the capacity of the earth, and what charge
does it contain of electricity.
DISTURBANCE AND DEMONSTRATION OF THE
earth’s ELECTRICAL CHARGE.
Part of Mr. Tesla’s more recent work has
been m the direction here indicated; for in his
oscillator he has not simply a new practical
device, but a new implement of scientific re¬
search. With the oscillator, if he has not as
yet actually determined the earth’s electrical
charge or “ capacity,” he has obtained striking
effects which conclusively demonstrate that he
has succeeded in disturbing it. He connects to
the earth, by one of its ends, a coil (see Fig. 15)
in which rapidly vibrating currents are pro¬
duced, the other end being free in space. With
this coil he does actually what one would be do¬
ing with a pump forcing air into an elastic foot¬
ball. At each alternate stroke the ball would ex¬
pand and contract. But it is evident that such
a ball, if filled with air, would, when suddenly
expanded or contracted, vibrate at its own rate.
Now if the strokes of the pump be so timed
that they are in harmony with the individual
vibrations of the ball, an intense vibration or
surging will be obtained. The purple streamers
of electricity thus elicited from the earth and
pouring out to the ambient air are marvelous.
Such a display is seen in Fig. 14, where the
crown of the coil, tapering upward in a Peak
of Teneriffe, flames with the outburst of a solar
photosphere.
The currents which are made to pass in and
out of the earth by means of this coil can also be
directed upon the human body. An observer
mounted on a chair, and touching the coil with
a metal rod, can, by careful adjustments, divert
enough of it upon himself to cause its manifes¬
tation from and around him in splinters of light.
This halo effect, obtained by sending the elec¬
tricity of the earth through a human bein g,—the
highest charge positively ever given in safety,—
' ' asasasee @ ats s agmaa
931
FIG. 15. TESLA COIL FOR ASCERTAINING AND DISCHARGING THE ELECTRICITY OF THE EARTH. THE STREAMERS AT TOP
OF COIL ARE OF PURPLE HUE, AND IN FORM RESEMBLE FILAMENTS OF SEAWEED, THE EFFECT OF MASS BEING
CAUSED BY PROLONGED EXPOSURE OF FLASH-LIGHT NEGATIVE.
is, to say the least,curious, and deeply suggestive.
Mr. Tesla’s temerity in trying the effect first upon
his own person can be justified only by his close
and accurate calculation of what the amount of
the discharge from the earth would be.
Considering that in the adjustments necessary
here, a small length of wire or a small body of
any kind added to the coil or brought into its
vicinity may destroy entirely all effect, one can
imagine the pleasure which the investigator
feels when thus rewarded by unique phenom¬
ena. After searching with patient toil for two
or three years after a result calculated in ad¬
vance, he is compensated by being able to wit-
h & €2' fef' & SD & £2’- O & S O- S S' S S S S' S & S S S'
933
OLD DUTCH MASTERS.
ness a most magnificent display of fiery streams
and lightning discharges breaking out from the
tip of the wire with the roar of a gas-well. Aside
from their deep scientific import and their won¬
drous fascination as a spectacle, such effects
point to many new realizations making for the
higher welfare of the human race. The trans¬
mission of power and intelligence is but one
thing; the modification of climatic conditions
may be another. Perchance we shall “call up ”
Mars in this way some day, the electrical charge
of both planets being utilized in signals.
Here are great results, lofty aims, and noble
ideas; an d y et they are but a beggarly fe w of all
those with which Mr. Tesla, by his simple, mod¬
est work, lias associated his name during recent
years. He is not an impracticable visionary,
but a worker who, with solid achievements be¬
hind him, seeks larger and better ones that lie
before, as well as fuller knowledge. I have ven¬
tured to supplement data as to his late inven¬
tions by some of his views as to the ether, which
throughout this presentation of his work has
been treated familiarly as the maid-of-all-work
of the universe. All our explanations of things
are but half-way houses to the ultimate facts. It
may be said, then, in conclusion, that while Mr.
Tesla does not hold Professor Oliver Lodge’s
ingenious but intricate notion of two electrici¬
ties and two ethers, and of the ether as itself
electricity, he does belong to what Lord Kel¬
vin has spoken of as the nineteenth-century
school of plenum, accepting one ether for light,
heat, electricity, and magnetism, outward man¬
ifestations of an inward unity whose secret we
shall some day learn.
Thomas Commerford Martin.
IN TESLA’S LABORATORY.
H ERE in the dark what ghostly figures press!—
No phantom of the Past, or grim or sad;
No wailing spirit of woe; no specter, clad
In white and wandering cloud, whose dumb distress
Is that its crime it never may confess;
No shape from the strewn sea; nor they that add
The link of Life and Death—the tearless mad,
That live nor die in dreary nothingness:
But blessed spirits waiting to be born —
Thoughts, to unlock the fettering chains of T hings;
The Better Time; the Universal Good.
Their smile is like the joyous break of morn;
How fair, how near, how wistfully they brood!
Listen! that murmur is of angels’ wings.
Robert Underwood Johnson.
OLD DUTCH MASTERS.
FERDINAND BOL (1616-1680).
ERDINAND BOL was the old¬
est student in Rembrandt’s
house in Amsterdam. He was
one of the first, and by many is
considered to have been the
best. Very little is known of his
life. He was bom at Dort, in
June, 1616, and became a pupil of Rembrandt
toward 1630, when about fourteen years of
age, and is not known to have had any other
instructor. In 1652 he became a citizen of
Amsterdam, and died there, on July 24, 1680,
a rich man. Bol is considered chiefly as. a
portrait-painter, though he executed many his¬
torical works, and his etchings are highly es¬
teemed. In his early pictures he adheres to
the manner of his master, as may be readily
observed in his portrait of Saskia, Rembrandt’s
wife, in the Brussels Museum, and in other of
his works prior to 1642, in which he comes
very near his master. After this he endeavors
to strike out for himself, becomes different
from Rembrandt in every way, and does not
succeed very well, until finally we have a mas-
O'
ENGRAVED BY T. COLE.
PORTRAIT OF A MAN. BY FERDINAND BOL.
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mm
AND OTHER
NIKOLA TESLA,
A Lecture Delivered Before the National Electric
Light Association at its
Sixteenth Convention
ST. LOUIS, MO
February 28th, March, 1st and
PUBLISHED by order of
The National Electric Light Association
NEW YORK CITY
' ; : i-
COPYRIGHTED 3Y
The National Electric Light association
1893-
all .Rights Reserved.
THE JAMES ItEMPSTER PRINTING CO.
11T-11&-131 LIBERTY ST.,
NEW YORK.
LIGHT
HIGH FREQUENCY PHENOMENA.
Introductory—Some Thoughts on the Eye.
When we look at the world around us, on nature,
we are impressed with its beauty and grandeur. Each
thing we perceive, though it may be vanishingly small,
is in itself a world, that is, like the whole of the visible
universe, matter and force governed by law—a world,
the contemplation of which fills us with feelings of
wonder and irresistibly urges us to ceaseless thought
and inquiry. But in all this vast world, of all objects
our senses reveal to us, the most marvelous, the most
appealing to our imagination, appears, no doubt, a
highly developed organism, a thinking being. If there
is anything fitted to make us admire nature’s handi¬
work, it is certainly this inconceivable structure, which
performs its innumerable motions in obedience to
external influence. To understand its workings, to
get a deeper insight into this nature’s masterpiece,
has ever been for thinkers a fascinating aim, and after
many centuries of arduous research men have arrived
at a fair understanding of the functions of its organs
and senses. Again, in dll the perfect harmony of its
parts, of the parts which constitute the material or
tangible of our being, of all: its organs and senses, the
eye is the most wonderful. It is the most precious,
the most indispensable of our receptive or directive
organs; it is the great gateway through which • all
knowledge enters the mind. Of all our organs, it is
the one which is in the most intimate relation with
that which we call intellect. So intimate is this relation,
that it is often said that the very soul shows itself in
the eye.
It can be taken as a fact, which the theory of the
action of the eye implies, that for each external
impression, that is, for each image produced upon the
retina, the ends of the visual nerves, concerned in the
conveyance of the impression to the mind, must be
under a peculiar stress or in a vibratory state. It now
does not seem improbable that, when by the power of
thought an image is evoked, a distinct reflex action,
no matter how weak, is exerted upon certain ends of
the visual nerves, and therefore upon the retina. Will
it ever be within human power to analyze the condition
of the retina, when disturbed by thought or reflex
•action, by the help of some optical or other means of
such sensitiveness that a clear idea of its state might
be gained at any time ? If this were possible, then the
problem of reading one’s thoughts with precision, like
the -Characters of an open book, might be much easier
to solve than many problems belonging to the domain
of positive physical science, in the solution of which
many, if not the majority, of scientific men implicitly
believe. Helmholtz has shown that the fundi of the
eyes are themselves luminous, and he was able to see
in total darkness the movement of, his arm by the light
of his own eyes. This is one of the most remarkable
experiments recorded in the history of science, and
probably only a few men could satisfactorily repeat it,
for it is very likely that the luminosity of the eyes is
associated with uncommon activity of the brain and
great imaginative power. It- is fluorescence of brain
action, as it were.
Another fact having a bearing on this subject, which
has probably been noted by many, since it is stated in
popular expressions, but which I cannot recollect to
have found chronicled as a positive result of observation,
is that at times, when a sudden idea or image presents
itself to the intellect, there is a distinct and sometimes
painful sensation of luminosity produced in the eye,
observable even in broad daylight.
The sajring, then, that the soul shows itself in the
eye, is deeply founded, and we feel that it expresses
a great truth. It has a profound meaning even for one
who, like a poet or artist, only following his inborn
instinct or love for nature, finds delight in aimless
thoughts and in the mere contemplation of natural
phenomena, but a still more profound meaning for one
who, in the spirit of positive scientific investigation,
seeks to ascertain the causes of the effects. It is prin¬
cipally the natural philosopher, the physicist, for whom
the eye is the subject of the most intense admiration.
Two facts about the eye must forcibly impress the
mind of the physicist, notwithstanding he may think or
say that it is an imperfect optical instrument, forgetting
that the very conception of that which is perfect, or
seems so to him, has been gained through this same
instrument. Firstly, the eye is, as far as our positive,
knowledge goes, the only organ which is directly
affected by that subtile medium which, as science
teaches us, must fill all space; secondly, it is the most-
sensitive of our organs, incomparably more sensitive'
to external impressions than any other.
The organ of hearing implies the impact of ponderable
bodies, the organ of smell the transference of detached
material particles, and the organs of taste, and of touch
or force, the direct contact, or at least some interference
of ponderable matter; and this is true even in those
© ©
LIGHT
AND OTHER
HIGH FREQUENCY PHENOMENA.
Introductory—Some Thoughts on the Eye.
COPYRIGHTED BY
the National electric light association.
1893-
all .Rights Reserved.
THE JAMES KEV.PSTER PRINTING GO.,
117-119-121 LIBERTY ST.,
NEW YORK..
V . . J
"V
When we look at the world around us, on nature,
we are impressed with its beauty and grandeur. Each
thing we perceive, though it may be vanishingly small,
is in itself a world, that is, like the whole of the visible
universe, matter and force governed by law—a world,
the contemplation of which fills us with feelings of
wonder and irresistibly urges us to ceaseless thought
and inquiry. But in all this vast world, of all objects
our senses reveal to us, the most marvelous, the most
appealing to our imagination, appears, no doubt, a
highly developed organism, a thinking being. If there
is anything fitted to make us admire nature’s handi¬
work, it is certainly this inconceivable structure, which
performs its innumerable motions in obedience to
external influence. To understand its workings, to
get a deeper insight into this nature’s masterpiece,
has ever been for thinkers a fascinating aim, and after
many centuries of arduous research men have arrived
at a fair understanding of the functions of its organs
and senses. Again, in all the perfect harmony of its
parts, of the parts which :, constitute the material or
tangible of our being, of all its. organs and senses, the
eye is the most wonderful. It is the most precious,
the most indispensable of our receptive or directive
organs; it is the great gateway through which-all
III
■
' v l;
m P
1 V^W;
■ V : i '
'
-
4
knowledge enters the mind. Of all our organs, it is
the one which is in the most intimate relation with
that which we call intellect. So intimate is this relation,
that it is often said that the very soul shows itself in
the eye.
It can be taken as a fact, which the theory of the
action of the eye implies, that for each external
impression, that is, for each image produced upon the
retina, the ends of the visual nerves, concerned in the
conveyance of the impression to the mind, must be
under a peculiar stress or in a vibratory state. It now
does not seem improbable that, when by the power of
thought an image is evoked, a distinct reflex action,
no matter how weak, is exerted upon certain ends of
the visual nerves, and therefore upon the retina. Will
it ever be within human power to analyze the condition
of the retina, when disturbed by thought or reflex
■action, by the help of some optical or other means of
such sensitiveness that a clear idea of its state might
be gained at any time ? If this were possible, then the
problem of reading one’s thoughts with precision, like
the Characters of an open book, might be much easier
to solve than many problems belonging to the domain
of positive physical science, in the solution of which
many, if not the majority, of scientific men implicitly
believe. Helmholtz has shown that the fundi of the
eyes are themselves luminous, and he was able to see
in total darkness the movement of, his arm by the light
of his own eyes. This is one of the most remarkable
experiments recorded in the history of science, and
probably only a few men could satisfactorily repeat it,
for it is very likely that the luminosity of the eyes is
associated with uncommon activity of the brain and
of brain
Another fact having a bearing on this subject, which
has probably been noted by many, since it is stated in
popular expressions, but which I cannot recollect to
have found chronicled as a positive result of observation,
is that at times, when a sudden idea or image presents
itself to the intellect, there is a distinct and sometimes
painful sensation of luminosity produced in the eye,
observable even in broad daylight.
The saying, then, that the soul shows itself in the
eye, is deeply founded, and we feel that it expresses
a great truth. It has a profound meaning' even for one
who, like a poet or artist, only following his inborn
instinct or love for nature, finds delight in aimless
thoughts and in the mere contemplation of natural
phenomena, but a still more profound meaning for one
who, in the spirit of positive scientific investigation,
seeks to ascertain the causes of the effects. It is prin¬
cipally the natural philosopher, the physicist, for whom
the eye is the subject of the most intense admiration.
Two facts about the eye must forcibly impress the
mind of the physicist, notwithstanding he may think or
say that it is an imperfect optical instrument, forgetting
that the very conception of that which is perfect; or
seems so to him, has been gained through this same
instrument. Firstly, the eye is, as far as our positive-'
knowledge goes, the only organ which is directly
affected by that subtile medium which, as science
teaches us, must fill all space; secondly, it is the most
sensitive of our organs, incomparably more sensitive-
to external impressions than any other.
The organ of bearing implies the impact of ponderable
bodies, the organ of Smell the transference of detached
material particles, and the organs of taste, and of touch
or force, the direct contact, or at least some interference .
of ponderable matter; and this is true even in those
6
instances of animal organisms in which some of these
organs are developed to a degree of truly marvelous
perfection: This being so, it seems wonderful that the
organ of sight solely should be capable of being stirred
by that which all our other organs are powerless to
detect, which yet plays an essential part in all natural
phenomena, which transmits all energy and sustains all
motion and, that most intricate of all, life, but which
has properties such that even a scientifically trained
mind cannot help drawing a distinction between it and
all that is called matter. Considering merely this, and
the fact that the eye, by its marvelous power, widens our
otherwise very narrow range of perception far beyond
the limits of the small world, which is our own, to
embrace myriads of other worlds, suns and stars in the
infinite depths of the universe, would make it justifiable
to assert that it' is an organ of a higher order. Its
performances are beyond comprehension. Nature, so
far as we know, never produced anything more
wonderful. We can get barely a faint idea of its
prodigious power by analyzing what it does and by
comparing. When ether waves impinge upon the
human body, they produce the sensations of warmth or
cold, pleasure or pain, or perhaps other sensations of
which we are not aware, and any degree or intensity of
these sensations ; which degrees are infinite in number,
hence an infinite number of distinct sensations. But
our sense of touch, or our sense of force, cannot reveal
to us these differences in degree or intensity unless they
are very great. Now, we can readily conceive how an
organism, such as the human in the eternal process of
evolution, or, more philosophically speaking, adaptation
to nature, being constrained to the use of only the sense
of touch or force, for instance, might develop this sense
to such a degree of sensitiveness or perfection that it
7
would be capable of distinguishing the minutest differ¬
ences in the temperature of a body even at some
distance, to a hundredth, or thousandth, or millionth
part of a degree. Yet, even this apparently impossible
performance would not begin to compare with that of
the eye, which is capable of distinguishing and conveying
to the mind in a single instant innumerable peculiarities
of tbe body, be it in form or color or other respects.
This power of the eye rests upon two things, name y,
the rectilinear propagation of tbe disturbance by which
it is affected, and upon its sensitiveness. To say that
the eye is sensitive is not saying anything. Compared
with it, all other organs are monstrously crude. The
organ of smell which guides a dog on the trail of a deer,
the organ of touch or force which guides an insect m its
wanderings, the organ of hearing, which is affected by
the slightest disturbances of the air, are sensitive organs,
to be sure, but what are they compared with the human
eye! No doubt it responds to the faintest echoes or
reverberations of the medium ; no doubt, it brings us
tidings from other worlds, infinitely remote, but m a
language we cannot as yet always understand. . And why
not? Because we live in a medium filled with air and
other gasgs, vapors and a dense mass of solid particles
flyincr about. These play an important part m many
phenomena; they fritter away the energy of the vibra¬
tions before they can reach the eye ; they, too, are the
carriers of germs of destruction ; they get into our lungs
and other organs, clog up the channels and imperceptibly,
yet inevitably, arrest the stream of life. Could we but
do away with all ponderable matter in the line of sig it
of the' telescope, it would reveal to us undreamt of
marvels. Even the unaided eye, I think, would be
capable of distinguishing in the pure medium small
8
objects at distances measured probably by hundreds or,
perhaps, thousands of miles.
But there is something else about the eye which
impresses us still more than these wonderful features
which we observe, viewing it from the standpoint of a
physicist, merely as an optical instrument—something
which appeals to us more than its marvelous faculty of
being directly affected by the vibrations of the medium,
without interference of gross matter, and more than its
inconceivable sensitiveness and discerning power. It is
its significance in the processes of life. No matter what
one’s views on Nature and life may be, he must stand
amazed when, for the first time in his thoughts, he
realizes the importance of the eye in the physical pro¬
cesses and mental performances of the human organism.
And how could it be otherwise, when he realizes that
the eye is the means through which the human race has
acquired the entire knowledge it possesses, that it con¬
trols all our motions; more, still, all our actions.
There is no way of acquiring knowledge except
through the eye. What is the foundation of all philo¬
sophical systems of ancient and modern times, in fact,
of all the philosophy of man ? I am, I think ; I think ,
therefore, I am. But how could I think, and how
would I know that I exist if I had not the eye?
For knowledge involves consciousness; consciousness
involves ideas, conceptions; conceptions involve pictures
or images, and images, the sense of vision, and, there¬
fore, the organ of sight. But how about blind men,
will be asked? Yes, a blind man may depict in mag¬
nificent poems forms and scenes from real life, from a
world he physically does not see. A blind man may
touch the keys of an instrument with unerring precision,
may build the fastest boat, may discover and invent,
calculate and construct, may do still greater wonders ;
9
but all the blind men who have done such things have
descended from those who had seeing eyes. Nature
may reach the same result in many ways. Like a wave
in the physical world, in the infinite ocean of the
medium which pervades all, so in the world of oigan-
isms, in life, an impulse started proceeds onward, at
times, may be, with the speed of light, at times, again,
so slowly that for ages and ages it seems to stay, passing
through processes of a complexity inconceivable to men,
but in all its forms, in all its stages, its energy ever and
ever integrally present. A single ray of light from a
distant star falling upon the eye of a tyrant in bygone
times may have altered the course of his life, may have
changed the'' destiny of nations, may have transformed
the surface of the globe, so intricate, so inconceivably
complex are the processes in Nature. In no way can
we get such an overwhelming idea of the giandeui of
. Nature as when we consider that in accordance with the
law of the conservation of energy, throughout the
Infinite, the forces are in a perfect balance, and hence
the energy of a single thought may determine the
motion of a Universe. It is not necessary that every
individual, not even that every generation or many gen¬
erations, should have the physical instrument of sight,
in order to be able to form images and to think, that isj
form ideas or conceptions; but some time 01 othei,
during the process of evolution, the eye certainly must
have existed, else thought, as we understand it, would
be impossible; else conceptions, life! spirit, intellect,
mind, call it as you may, could not exist. It is con¬
ceivable that iri some other world, in some othei beings,
the eye is replaced by a different organ, equally 01 more
perfect, but these beings cannot be%en.
Now, what prompts us to all voluntary motions and
actions* s ®f«any kind? Again, the eye. If I am con-
xo
scious of the motion, I must have an idea or concep¬
tion—that is, an image—therefore, the eye. If I am
not precisely conscious' of the motion, it is because the
images are vague or indistinct, being blurred by the
superimposition of many. But when I perform the
motion, does the impulse which prompts me to the
action come from within, or from without ? The great¬
est physicists have not disdained to endeavor to answer
this and similar questions, and have at times abandoned
themselves to the delights of pure and unrestrained
thought. Such questions are generally considered not
to bdong to the realm of positive physical science, but
will before long be-annexed to its domain. Helmholtz
has probably thought more on life than any modern
scientist. Lord Kelvin expressed his belief that lifes
process is electrical, and that there is a force inherent to
the organism and determining its motions. Just as
much as I am convined of any physical truth I am con¬
vinced that the motive impulse must come from the
outside; for, consider the lowest organism we know—
and there are probably many lower ones an aggrega¬
tion of a few cells only. If it is capable of voluntary
motion, it can perform an infinite number of motions,
all definite and precise. But now a mechanism consist¬
ing of a finite number of parts, and few at that, cannot
perform an infinite number of definite motions; hence,
the impulses which govern its movements must come
from the environment. So the atom, the ultenoi
, element of the Universe’s structure, is tossed about m
space eternally, a play to external influences, like a float
in a troubled sea. Were it to stop its motion,_ it would
die. Matter at rest, if such a thing could exist, would
be matter dead. Death of matter! Never has a sen¬
tence of deeper philosphical meaning been uttered.
This is the way in which Professor Dewar forcibly
IT.
expresses it in the description of his admirable experi¬
ments, in which liquid ox)igen is handled as one handles
water, and air at ordinary pressure is made to condense
and even to solidify by the intense cold—-experiments
which serve to illustrate, in his language, the last feeble
manifestations of life, the last quiverings of matter
about to die. But human eyes shall not witness such
death. There is no death of matter, for throughout the
infinite universe all has to move, to vibrate—that is, to
llVe 'l have made the preceding statements at the peril of
treading upon metaphysical ground in my desire to intro¬
duce the subject of this lecture in a manner not alto-
o-ether uninteresting, I may hope, to an audience such as
I have the honor to address. But now, then, returning
to the subject, this divine organ of sight, this indis¬
pensable instrument for thought and all intellectual
enjoyment, which lays open to us the marvels of this
Universe, through which we have acquired what knowl¬
edge we possess, and which prompts us to and controls
all our physical and mental activity—by what is it
affected ? By light! What is light ?
We have witnessed the great strides which have been
made in all departments of science in recent years. So
o- r eat have been the advances that we cannot refrain
from asking ourselves, Is this all true, or is it but a
dream ? Centuries ago men have lived, have thought,
discovered, invented, and have believed that they were
soaring, while they were merely proceeding at a snail s
pace. & So we, too, may be mistaken. But, taking the
truth of the observed events as one of the implied facts
of science, we must rejoice in the immense progress,
already made, and still more in the anticipation of what
must come, judging from the possibilities opened up by
modern research. There is, however, an advance which
12
we have been witnessing, which must be particularly
gratifying to every lover of progress. It is not a
discovery, or an invention, or an achievement in any 1 -
particular direction. It is an advance in all directions
of scientific thought and experiment. 1 . mean the
generalization of the natural forces and phenomena, the
looming up of a certain broad idea on the scientific
horizon. It is this idea which has, however, long ago
taken possession of the most advanced minds, to which
I desire to call your attention, and which I intend to
illustrate, in a general way; in these experiments, as the
first step in answering the question, “ What is light ?”
and to realize the modern meaning of this word.
It is beyond the scope of my lecture to dwell upon
the subject of light in general, my object being merely
to bring presently to your notice a certain class of light
effects and a number of phenomena observed in pursuing
the study of these effects. But to be consistent in my
remarks it is necessary to state that according to that
idea, now accepted by the majority of scientific men as
a positive result of theoretical and experimental investi¬
gation, the various forms or manifestations of energy
which were generally designated as “electric” or, more
precisely, “electromagnetic,” are energy manifestations
of the same nature as those of radiant heat and light.
Therefore, the phenomena of light and heat, and others
besides these, may be called electrical phenomena. Thus
electrical science has become the mother science of all,
and its study has become all important. The day when
we ...shall know exactly what “electricity” is, will
chronicle an event probably greater, more important,
than any other recorded in the history of the human
race. The time will come when the comfort, the very
existence, perhaps, of man will depend upon that
■wonderful agent. For our existence and comfort we
require heat, light and mechanical power. How do we
now get all these? We get them from fuel; we get
them by consuming material. What will man do when
the forests disappear, when the coal fields are exhausted ?
Only one thing, according to our present knowledge,
will remain ; that is, to transmit power at great distances.
Men will go to the waterfalls, to the tides, which are the
stores of an infinitesimal part of Nature’s immeasurable
energy. There will they harness the energy and transmit
the same to their settlements, to warm their homes by,
to give them light, and to keep their obedient slaves,
the machines, toiling.. But how will they transmit this
energy if not by electricity ? Judge, then, if the com¬
fort, nay, the very existence, of man will not depend on
electricity. I am aware that this view is not that of a
practical engineer ; but neither is it that of an illusionist,
for it is certain that power transmission, which, at
present, is merely a stimulus to enterprise, will some
da}^ be a dire necessity.
It is more important for the student who takes
up the study of light phenomena to make himself
thoroughly acquainted with certain modern views than
to peruse entire books on the subject of light itself,
as disconnected from these views. Were I, therefore,
to make these demonstrations before students seeking
information—and for the sake of the few of those who
may be present, give me leave to so assume—it would
be my principal endeavor to impress these views upon
their minds in this series of experiments.
It might be sufficient for this purpose to perform
a simple and well-known experiment. I might take
a familiar appliance, a Leyden jar, charge it from a
frictional mafchine, and then discharge it.- In explaining
to you its permanent state when charged, and its
transitory condition when discharging; calling your
attention to the forces which enter into play and to the
various phenomena they produce, and pointing out the
relation of the forces and phenomena, I might fully
succeed in illustrating that modern idea. To the
thinker, no doubt, this simple experiment would appeal
as much as the most magnificent display. But this is
to be an experimental demonstration, and one which
should possess besides instructive, also entertaining
features, and as such, a simple experiment, such as the
ment of the lecturer’s aim. I must, therefore, choose
another way of illustrating, more spectacular certainly,
but perhaps also more instructive. Instead of the
frictional machine and Leyden jar, I shall avail myself
in these experiments of an induction coil of peculiar
properties, which was described in detail by me in a
lecture before the London Institution of Electrical
Engineers, in February, 1892. This induction coil is
capable of yielding currents of enormous potential
differences, alternating with extreme rapidity. With
this apparatus I shall endeavor to show you three
distinct classes of effects, or phenomena, and it is my
desire that each experiment, while serving for the
purposes of illustration, shall at the same time teach
us some novel truth, or show us some novel aspect
of this fascinating science. But before doing this, it
seems proper and useful to dwell upon the apparatus
employed and method of obtaining the high potentials
and high frequency currents which are made use of in
these experiments.
ON THE APPARATUS AND METHOD OF CONVERSION.
These high-frequency currents are obtained in a
peculiar manner. The method employed was advanced
by me about two years ago in an experimental lecture
■Plan of Connections Used in the Conversion
of the Disruptive Arc Discharge.
before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
A number of ways, as practiced in the laboratory, of
obtaining these currents, either from continuous or low-
frequency alternating currents, is diagrammatically indi¬
cated in Fig. i, which will be later described in detail.
The general plan is to charge condensers, from a direct
or alternate current source, preferably of high tension,
and to discharge them disruptively while observing well-
known conditions necessary to maintain the oscillations
of the current. In view of the general interest taken in
high-frequency currents and effects producible by them,
it seems to me advisable to dwell at some length upon
this method of conversion. In order to give you a clear
idea of the action, I will suppose that a continuous
current generator is employed, which is often very con¬
venient. It is desirable that the generator should possess
such high tension as to be able to break through a small
air space. If this is not the case, then auxiliary means
have to be resorted to, some of which will be indicated
subsequently. When the condensers are charged to a
certain potential, the air or insulating space gives way
and a disruptive discharge occurs. There is then a sud¬
den rush of current, and generally a large portion of the
accumulated electrical- energy spends itself. The con¬
densers are thereupon quickly charged, and the same
process is repeated in more or less rapid succession. To
produce such sudden rushes of current it is necessary to
observe certain conditions. If the rate at which the
condensers are discharged is the same as that at which
they are charged, then, clearl3P in the assumed case the
condensers do not come into play. If the rate of dis¬
charge be smaller than the rate of charging, then, again,
the condensers cannot play an important part. But if,
on the contrary, the rate of discharging is greater than
that of charging, then a succession of rushes of current
is obtained. It is evident that if the rate at which the
energy is being dissipated by the discharge is very much
greater than the rate of supply to the condensers, the
sudden rushes will be comparatively few, with long time'-
intervals between. This always, occurs when a condenser
of considerable capacity is charged by means of a com¬
paratively small machine. If the rates of suppfy and
dissipation are not widely different, then the rushes of
current will be in quicker succession, and this the more,
the more nearly equal both the rates are, until natural
limitations incident to each case, and depending upon a
number of causes, are reached. Thus we are able to
obtain from a continuous current generator as rapid a
succession of discharges as we like. Of course, the
higher the tension of the generator, the smaller need be
the capacity of the condensers, and for this reason, prin¬
cipally, it is of advantage to employ a generator of very
high tension. Besides, such a generator permits the
attaining of greater rates of vibration.
The rushes of.current may be of the same direction
under the conditions before assumed, but most generally
there is an oscillation superimposed upon the funda¬
mental vibration of the current. When the conditions
are so determined that there is no oscillation, the
current impulses are unidirectional and thus a means' is
provided of transforming a continuous current of high,
tension into a direct current of lower tension, which I
think may find employment in the arts.
This method of conversion is exceedingly interesting-
and I was much impressed by its beauty when I first
conceived it. It is ideal in certain respects. It
involves the employment of no mechanical devices o£
any .kind, and it allows of obtaining currents of any
desired frequency from an ordinary circuit, direct or
alternating. The frequency of the fundamental dis-
rharo-es depending on the relative rates of supply and
dissipation can be readily varied within wide limits y
simple adjustments of these quantities, and the frequency
^ the superimposed vibration by the c—
the capacity, self-induction and resistance of the ammo
The potential of the currents, again, may be raised
as hio-h as any insulation is capable of withstanding
safely" by combining capacity and self-induction 01 y
induction in a secondary, which need have but eompara-
^^As^th^conditions are often such that the inter-
mittence or oscillation does not read.ly es abb* dself,
especially when a direct current source is employed
itTs of advantage to associate an interrupter with the
arc and brave, Some time ago, indicated the use of an
‘air blast or magnet, or other such devrce read.ly at hand
The magnet is employed with special advantage in 1
lonv rslon of direit currents, as it is then very effective.
If the primary source is an alternate current generator
it is desirable, as I have stated on another occasion, that
the frequency should be low, and that the current
forming d'e L be large, in order to render the magnet
[ ‘° A lor re'of such discharger, with a magnet, which has
beef Cd convenient, and adopted, after some trials
in the conversion of direct currents particulaily, is illus
tinted in Fig. a. » s are the pole-pieces of a very slion e
“vnet which is excited by a coil, c. The po^-p.eces
-slotted for adjustment, and can be fastenedjm^iy
SS do y w~ l eX ilmdt to Slow a oio.r
approach of the magnetic pole-pieces, pass through :
Sbis of brass iand are f-mred m pcs,.,on by
Snnn^s y v-\ > colitis, c c^ f PI.
onThe rods, the Matter serving to set the points of the
19
rods at a certain suitable distance by means of screws,
, r and the former to draw the points apart. When
it' is'’desired to start the arc one of the hard rubber
handles h h x is tapped quickly with the hand whereby
the points of the rods are brought m contact, but aie
instantly separated by the springs r r v Such an arrange¬
ment has been found to be often necessary, namelj,
h r*
S-
h,
Fig 2_Form OK Discharger with Magnet Used in the Direct
Current Conversion.
cases when the electromotive force was not large enough
to cause the discharge to break through the gap and
also when it was desirable to avoid short-circuiting o re
generator by the metallic contact of the rods, i he
rapidity of the interruptions of the current with a mag¬
net depends on the intensity of the magnetic field anc
on the potential difference at the ends of the arc. i He
interruptions are generally in such quick succession as to
produce a musical sound. Years ago it was obseive
k vU?
20
that when a powerful induction coil was discharged
between the poles of a strong magnet the discharge pro¬
duced a loud noise not unlike a small pistol shot. It
was vaguely stated that the spark was intensified by the
presence of the magnetic field. It is now clear that the
discharge current, flowing for some time, was inter¬
rupted a great number of times by the magnet, thus
producing the sound. The phenomenon is especially
marked when the field cii'cuit of a large magnet or
dynamo is broken in a powerful magnetic field.
When the current through the gap is comparatively
large, it is of advantage to slip on the points of the dis¬
charge rods pieces of very hard carbon, and let the arc
play between the carbon pieces. This preserves the
rods, and, besides, has the advantage of keeping the air
space hotter, as the heat is not conducted away as
quickly through the carbons, and the result is that a
smaller electromotive force in the arc gap is required to
maintain a succession of discharges.
Another form of discharger which may be employed
with advantage in some cases is illustrated in Fig. 3.
In this form’the discharge rods dd t pass through perfor¬
ations in a wooden box b, which is thickly coated with
mica on the inside, as indicated by the heavy lines.
The perforations ai-e provided with mica tubes of
some thickness, which are preferably not in contact with
the rods dd v The box has a cover c, which is a little
larger, and descends on the outside of the box. The
spark gap is warmed by a small lamp l , contained in the
box. A plate p above the lamp allows the draught to
pass only through the chimney c of the lamp, the air
entering through holes 0 o in or near the bottom of the
box and following the path indicated by the arrows.
When the discharger is in opex-ation the door of the box
is closed so that the light of the arc is not visible out¬
distance. The air should, of course, be sufficiently
insulating to allow the discharge to pass through the gap
disruptively. The arc formed under such conditions,
when long, may be made extremely sensitive, and the
weak draught through the lamp chimney c is quite suffi¬
cient to produce rapid interruptions. The adjustment
is made by regulating the temperature and velocity of
side. It is desirable to exclude the light as perfectly as
possible, as it interferes with some experiments. This
form of discharger is simple and very effective when
properly manipulated. The air being warmed to a cer¬
tain temperature has its insulating power impaired, it
becomes dielectrically weak, as it were, and the conse¬
quence is that the arc can be established at much greater
Fig. 3.—Discharges with Hot Air Draft.
the draught. Instead of using a lamp, it answers the
purpose to provide for a draught of warm air in other
ways. A very simple way which has been practiced is
to inclose the arc in a long vertical tube, with plates on
the top and bottom for regulating the temperature and
velocity of the air current. Some provision had to be
made for deadening the sound.
The air may also be rendered dielectrically weak by
rarefaction. Dischargers of this kind have likewise been
used by me in connection with the magnet. A large
tube is for this purpose provided with heavy electrodes
of carbon or metal, between which the discharge is made
to pass, the tube being placed in a powerful magnetic
field. The exhaustion of the tube is carried to a point
at which the discharge breaks through easily, but the
pressure should be more than seventy-five millimeters, at
which the ordinary thread discharge occurs. In another
form of discharger, combining the features before men¬
tioned, the discharge was made to pass between two
adjustable magnetic pole pieces, the space between them
being kept at air elevated temperature.
It should be remarked here, that when such, or inter¬
rupting devices of any kind, are used and the currents
are passed through the primary of a disruptive discharge
coil, it is not, as a rule, of advantage to produce a num¬
ber of interruptions of the current per second greater
than the natural frequency of vibration of the dynamo
supply circuit, which is ordinarily small. It should also
be pointed out here that while the devices mentioned in
connection with the disruptive discharge are advan¬
tageous under certain conditions, they may be sometimes
a source of trouble, as they produce intermittences and
other irregularities in the vibration, which it would be
very desirable to overcome.
There is, I regret to say, in this beautiful method of
conversion, a defect, which fortunately is not vital, and
which I have been gradually overcoming. I will best
call attention to this defect, and indicate a fruitful line
of work, by comparing the electrical process with its
mechanical analogue. The process may be illustrated in
this manner: Imagine a tank with a wide opening at
the bottom, which is kept closed by spring pressure, but
so that it snaps off suddenly when the liquid in the tank
has reached a certain height. Let the liquid be supplied
to the tank by means of a pipe, feeding at a certain rate.
When the critical height of the liquid is reached, the
spring gives way and the bottom of the tank drops out.
Instantly the liquid falls through the wide opening, and
the spring, reasserting itself, doses the bottom again.
The tank is now filled, and after a certain time interval
the same process is repeated. It is clear that if the pipe
feeds the liquid quicker than the bottom outlet is capable
of letting it pass through, the bottom will remain off,
and the tank will still overflow. If the rates of supply
are exactly equal, then the bottom lid will remain parti¬
ally open, and no vibration of the same and of the
liquid column will generally occur, though it might, if
started by some means. But if the inlet pipe does not
feed the liquid fast enough for the outlet, then there will
be always vibration. Again, in such case, each time the
bottom flaps up or down, the spring and the liquid
column, if the pliability of the spring and the inertia of
the moving parts are properly chosen, will perform inde¬
pendent vibrations. In this analogue the liquid may be
likened to electricity or electrical energy, the tank to the
condenser, the spring to the dielectric and the pipe to
the conductor through which electricity is supplied to
the condenser. To make this analogy quite complete it
is necessarj' to make the assumption that the bottom-,
each time it gives way, is knocked violently against a
24
non-elastic stop, this impact involving some loss of
energy, and. that, besides, some dissipation of energy
results, clue to frictional losses. In the preceding
analogue the liquid is supposed to be under a steady
pressure. If the pressure -of the liquid be assumed to
vary rhythmically, this may be taken as corresponding
to the case of an alternating current. The process is
then not quite as simple to consider, but the action is.
the same in principle.
It is desirable, in order to maintain the vibration
economically, to reduce the impact and frictional losses
as much as possible. As regards the latter, which in
the electrical analogue correspond to the losses due to
the resistance of the circuits, it is impossible to obviate-
them entirely, but they can be reduced to a minimum
by a proper selection of the dimensions of the circuits:
and by the employment of thin conductors in the form
of strands. But the loss of energy caused by the first
breaking through of the' dielectric—which in the above¬
example corresponds to the violent knock of the bottom
against the inelastic stop—would be more important,
to overcome. At the moment of the breaking through,
the air space has a very high resistance, which is prob¬
ably reduced to a very small value when the current
has reached some strength, and the space is brought to-
a high temperature. It would materially diminish the
loss of energy if the space were always kept at an
extremely high temperature, but then there would be
no disruptive break. By warming the space moderately
by means of a lamp or otherwise, the economy, as far
as the arc is concerned, is sensibly increased. But the
magnet or other interrupting device does not diminish
the ’loss in the arc. Likewise, a jet of air only facili¬
tates the carrying off of the energy. Air, or a gas in
general, behaves curiously in this respect. When two
2 5
-r
- --f
bodies, charged to a very high potential, discharge
disruptively through an air space, any amount of energy
may be carried off by the air. This energy is evidently
dissipated by bodily carriers, in impact and collisional
losses of the molecules. The exchange of the molecules
in the space occurs with inconceivable rapidity. A
powerful discharge taking place between two electx-odes,
they may remain entirely cool, and yet the loss in the
air may represent any amount of energy. It is perfectly
practicable, with very great potential differences in the
gap, to dissipate several horse power in the arc of the
discharge without even noticing a small increase in the
temperature of the electrodes. All the frictional losses
occur then practically in the air. If the exchange of
the air molecules is prevented, as by enclosing the air
hermetically, the gas inside of the vessel is brought
quickly to a high temperature, even with a very small
discharge. It is difficult to estimate how much of the
energy is lost in sound waves, audible or not, in a
powerful discharge. When the currents through the
gap are large, the electrodes may become rapidly heated;
but this is not a reliable measure of the energy wasted
in the arc, as the loss through the gap itself may be
comparatively small. The air or a gas in general is,
at ordinary pressures, at least, clearly not the best
medium through which a. disruptive discharge should
of
occur.
Air or other gas under great pressure is,
course, a much more suitable medium for the discharge
gap. I have carried on long-continued experiments .in
this direction, unfortunately less practicable on account
of the difficulties and expense in getting air under
great pressure. But even if the medium in the
discharge space is solid or liquid, still the same losses
take place, though they are generally smaller, for just
as soon as the arc is established, the solid or liquid is
. - 5
2 6
volatilized. Indeed, there is no body known which
would not be disintegrated by the arc, and it is an open
question among scientific men whether an arc discharge
could occur at all in the air itself without the particles
of the electrodes being torn off. When the current
through the gap is very small and the arc very long, I
believe that a relatively considerable amount of heat is
taken up in the disintegration of the electrodes, which
partially on this account may remain quite cold.
The ideal medium for a discharge gap should only
crack , and the ideal electrode should be of some mate¬
rial which cannot be disintegrated. With small currents
through the gap it is best to employ aluminum, but not
when the currents are large. The disruptive break in
the air, or, more or less, in any ordinary medium, is not
of the nature of a crack, but is rather comparable to the
piercing of innumerable bullets through a mass offering
great frictional resistance to the motion of the bullets,
thus involving considerable loss of energy. A medium
which would merely crack when strained electrostat¬
ically, and this possibly might be the case with a perfect
vacuum—that is, pure ether—would involve a very
small loss in the gap, so small as to be entirely negli¬
gible, at least theoretically, because a crack may be pro¬
duced by an infinitely small displacement. In exhausting
an oblong bulb provided with two aluminum terminals,
with the greatest care I have succeeded in producing
such a vacuum that the secondary discharge of a disrup¬
tive discharge coil would break disruptively through the
bulb in the form of fine spark streams. The curious
point was that the discharge would completely ignore
the terminals and start far behind the two aluminum
plates which served as electrodes. This extraordinarily
high vacuum could only be maintained for a very short
while. To return to the ideal medium. Think, for the
27
sake of illustration, of a piece of glass or similar body
clamped in a vise, and the latter tightened more and
more. At a certain point a minute increase of the
pressure will cause the glass to crack. The loss of
energy involved in splitting the glass may be practically
nothing, for, though the force is great, the displacement
need be but extremely small. Now, imagine that, the
glass would possess the property of closing the crack
again perfectly upon a minute diminution of the pres¬
sure. This is the way the dielectric in the discharge space
should behave; but, inasmuch as there would be always
some loss in the gap, the medium, which should be con¬
tinuous, should exchange through the gap at a rapid
rate. In the preceding example, the glass being per¬
fectly closed would mean, that the dielectric in the dis¬
charge space possesses a great insulating power ; the
glass being cracked would signify that the medium in the
space is a good conductor. The dielectric should vary
enormously in resistance by minute variations of the
electromotive force across the discharge space. This
condition is attained, but in an extremely imperfect
manner, by warming the air space to a certain critical
temperature, dependent on the electromotive force
across the gap, or by otherwise impairing the insulating
power of the air. But, as a matter of fact, the air never
does break down disruptively , if this term be rigorously
interpreted, for before the sudden rush of the current
occurs, there is always a weak current preceding it,
* which rises first gradually and then with comparative
suddenness. That is the reason why the rate of change
is very much greater when glass, for instance, is broken
than when the break takes place through an air space of
equivalent dielectric strength. As a medium for the
discharge space, a solid, or. even a liquid, would be
preferable therefor. It is somewhat difficult to conceive
28
of a solid body which would possess the property of
closing instantly after it has been cracked. But a liquid,
especially under great pressure, behaves practically like a
solid, while it possesses the property of closing the
crack. Hence, it was thought that a liquid insulator
micrht be more suitable as a dielectric than air. Follow¬
ing out this idea, a number of different forms of. dis¬
chargers, in which a variety of such insulatois, sometimes
under great pressure, were employed, have been, experi¬
mented upon. It is thought sufficient to dwell, m a few
words, upon one of the forms experimented upon. One
of these dischargers is illustrated in Figs. 4a and 4 b.
A hollow metal pulley r (Fig. 4 a) was fastened upon
an arbor a , which by suitable means was rotated at a
considerable speed. In the inside of the pulley, but
disconnected from the same, was supported a thin disc
(which is shown thick for the sake of clearness) of
hard rubber, in which there were embedded .two metal
segments ss, with metallic extensions ee, into which
were screwed conducting terminals tt, covered with
thick tubes of hard rubber tt. The rubber disc h, with
its metallic segments ss, was finished in a lathe, and its
entire surface highly polished, so as to offer the smallest
possible frictional resistance to the motion through, a
fluid. In the hollow of the pulley an insulating liquid,
such as a thin oil, was poured so as to reach very.nearly
to the opening left in the flange /, which was screwed
tightly on the front side of the pulley. The terminals
t *t were connected to the opposite coatings of a battery
of condensers so that the discharge occuiied through
the liquid. When the pulley was rotated the liquid was
forced against the rim of the pulley, and considerable
liquid pressure resulted. In this simple way the dischaige
gap was filled with a medium which behaved practically
tike a solid, which possessed the quality of closing
29
instantly upon the occurrence of the break, and which,
moreover, was cii'culating through the gap at a rapid
rate. Very powerful effects were produced by dis¬
chargers of this kind with liquid interrupters, of which a
number of different forms were made. It was found
that, as expected, a longer spark for a giver, length of
wire was obtainable in thisrivay than by using air as an
interrupting device. Generally the speed, and, there¬
fore, also the liquid pressure, was limited by reason of the
liquid friction in the form of discharger described ; but the
practically obtainable speed was more than sufficient to
Figs. 4 a , 46.—Form of Discharger with Liquid Interrupter.
produce a number of breaks suitable for the ciicuits
ordinarily used. In some instances the metal pulley f
was provided with a few projections inwardly, and. a
definite number of breaks was then produced, which
^ could be computed from the speed of rotation of the
* pulley. Experiments were also carried on with liquids
of different insulating power, with the view of reducing
the loss-in the arc. When an insulating liquid is modei-
ately warmed the loss in the arc is diminished.
A point of some importance was noted in experi¬
ments with various dischargers of this kind. It .was
3°
found, for instance, that whereas the conditions main¬
tained in these forms were favorable for the production
of a great spark length, the currents so obtained were
not best suited to the production of light effects.
Experience undoubtedly has shown that for such pur¬
poses a h arm onic rise and.fa ll o f the potential.is
preferable. Be it that a solid is rendered incandescent,
or phosphorescent, or be it that energy is transmitted
by condenser coating throug-h the glass, it is quite
certain that a harmonically rising and falling potential
produces less destructive action, and that the vacuum is
more permanently maintained. This would be easily
explained if it were ascertained that the process going
on in an exhausted vessel is of an electrolytic nature.
In the diagrammatical sketch, Fig. i, which has been
already referred to, the cases which are most likely to be
met with in practice are illustrated. One has at his
disposal either direct or alternating currents from a
supply station. It is convenient for an experimenter in
an isolated laboratory to employ a machine g, such as
illustrated, capable of giving both kinds of currents. In
such case it is also preferable to use a machine with
multiple circuits, as in many experiments it is useful and
convenient to have at one's disposal currents of different
phases. In the sketch, d represents the direct and a the
alternating circuit. In each of these, three branch
circuits are shown, all of which are provided with double
lines switches s s s s s s. Consider first the direct cur¬
rent conversion ; I a represents the simplest case. If the
electromotive force of the generator is sufficient to break
through a small air space, at least when the latter is
warmed or otherwise rendered poorly insulating, there
is no difficulty in maintaining a vibration with fair
economy by judicious adjustment of the capacity, self-
induction and resistance of the circuit l containing the
devices 11 m. The magnet n, s, can be in this case
advantageously combined with the air space. The
discharger d d with the magnet may be placed either
way, as indicated by the full or by the dotted lines, d he
circuit i a with the connections and devices is supposed
to possess dimensions such as are suitable for the mainte¬
nance of a vibration. But usually the electromotive
force on the circuit or branch i a will be something like
ioo volts or so, and in this case it is not sufficient to
break through the gap. Many different means may be
used to remedy this by raising the electromotive force
across the gap. The simplest is probably to insert a
large self-induction coil in series with the circuit L.
When the arc is established, as by the discharger illus¬
trated in Fig. 2, the magnet blows the arc out the instant
it is formed. Now, the extra current of the bieak, being
of high electromotive force, breaks through the gap, and
a path of low resistance for the dynamo current being
again provided, there is a sudden rush of the current
from the dynamo upon the weakening or subsidence of
the extra current. This process is repeated in rapid
succession, and in this manner I have maintained,
oscillation with as low as 5° volts, or even less, acioss
the gap. But conversion on this plan .is not to be
recommended on account of the too heavy currents
through the gap and consequent heating of the electrodes :
besides, the frequencies obtained in this way are low,
owing to the high self-induction necessarily associated
with the circuit. ' It is very desirable to have the elec¬
tromotive force as high as possible ; first, i n order to
increase the economy of the conversion, and, secondly,
tb obtain high frequencies. The difference of potential
in this electric oscillation is, of course, the equivalent of
the stretching force in. the mechanical vibration of the
spring. To obtain very rapid vibration in a circuit of
some inertia a great stretching force or difference of
potential is necessary. Incidentally, when the electromo¬
tive force is very great, the condenser which is usually
employed in connection with the circuit need have but
a small capacity, and many other advantages are gamed.
With a view of raising the electromotive force to a
many times greater value than obtainable from ordinary
distribution circuits, a rotating transformer g is used, as
indicated in Fig. 2«, or else a separate high potential
machine is driven by means of a motor operated from
the generator g. The latter plan is, in fact, preferable,
as changes are easier made. The connections from the
hio-h tension winding are quite similar to those in branch
iwith the exception that a condenser c, which should
be adjustable, is connected to the high tension ciicuits.
Usually, also, an adjustable self-induction coil in series
with the circuit has been employed in these experiments.
When the tension of the currents is very high the
magnet ordinarily used in connection with the dis¬
charger is of comparatively small value, as it is quite
easy to adjust the dimensions of the circuit so that oscil¬
lation is maintained. The ' employment of a steady
electromotive force in the high frequency conversion
affords some advantages over the employment of alter¬
nating electromotive force, as the adjustments are much
simpler, and the action can be easier controlled. But,
unfortunately, one is limited by the obtainable potential
difference. The windings also break down easily, in
consequence of the sparks which form between the
sections of the armature or commutator when a
vigorous oscillation takes place. Besides, these trans¬
formers are expensive to build. It has been found by
experience that it is best to follow the plan illustrated in
Fig. 3a. In this arrangement a rotating transformer, g,
is employed to convert the low tension direct currents
into low frequency alternating currents, preferably also
of small tension. The. tension of the currents is then
raised in a stationary transformer x. The secondary, s,
of this transformer is connected to an adjustable con¬
denser, c, which discharges through the gap or dis¬
charger d d, placed in either of the ways indicated,
through the primary p of a disruptive discharge coil
the high frequency currents being obtained from the
secondary s of this coil, as described on previous
occasions. This will undoubtedly be found the cheap-
° st and most convenient way of converting dtrect
The three, branches of the circuit a represent the
usual cases met in practice when alternating currents
are converted. In Fig. ib a condenser c, generally of
large capacity, is connected to the circuit l containing
the devices 11 , m m. The devices m m are supposed to
be of high self-induction, so as to bring the frequency
of the circuit more or less to that of the dynamo. In
this instance the discharger d d should best have a
number of makes and breaks per second equal to twice
the frequency of the dynamo. If not so, then it shou
have at least a number equal to a multiple 01 even
fraction of the dynamo frequency. It should be
observed, referring to i b, that the conversion to a high
potential is also effected when the discharger d d, which
is shown in the sketch, -is omitted. But the effects
which are produced by currents which rise instantly
to high values, as in a disruptive discharge, are entirely
different from those produced by dynamo currents whic
rise and fall harmonically. So, for instance, there
might be in a given case a number of makes and breaks
at d d equal to just twice the frequency of the dynamo
or in other words there may be the same number of
fundamental oscillations as would- be produced without
34
the discharge gap, and there might even not be any
quicker superimposed vibration ; yet the differences of
potential at the various points of the circuit, the
impedence and other phenomena, dependent upon the
rate of change, will bear no similarity in the two cases.
Thus, when working with currents discharging disrup-
tively, the element chiefly to be considered is not the
frequencjq as a student might be apt to believe, but the
rate of change per unit of time. With low frequencies,
in a certain measure, the same effects may be obtained
as with high frequencies, provided the rate of change
is sufficiently great. So if a low frequency current is
raised to a potential of, say, 75,000 volts and the high
tension current passed through a series of high resist¬
ance lamp filaments, the importance of the rarefied
gas surrounding the filament is clearly noted, as will
be seen later; or, if a low frequency current of several
thousand amperes is passed through a metal bar, striking
phenomena of impedence are observed, just as with
currents of high frequencies. But it is, of course, evident
that with low frequency currents it is impossible to
obtain such rates of change per unit of time as with
high frequencies, hence the effects produced by the
latter are much more prominent. It was deemed
advisable to make the preceding remarks, inasmuch
as many more recently described effects have been
unwittingly identified with high frequencies. Frequency
alone in reality does not mean anything, except when
an undisturbed harmonic oscillation is considered.
In the branch 3^ a similar disposition as in id is
illustrated, with the difference that the currents dis¬
charging through the gap d d are used to induce currents
in the secondary s of a transformer t. , In such case
the secondary should be provided with an adjustable
condenser for the purpose of tuning it to the primary.
35
Fig. 2 b illustrates a plan of alternate current hio-h
frequency conversion, which is most frequently used
and which is found to be most ■ convenient. This plan
has been dwelt upon in detail on previous occasions
ana need not be described here.
Some of these results were obtained by the use of
a high frequency alternator. A description of such
machines will be found in my original paper before
the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, and in
periodicals of that period, notably in The Electrical
Engineer of IVfarch 18th, 1891.
I will now proceed with the experiments.
ON PHENOMENA PRODUCED BY ELECTROSTATIC FORCE.
The first class of effects I intend to show you are
effects produced by electrostatic force. It is the force
which governs the motion of the atoms, which causes
them to collide and develop the life-sustaining energy of ’
heat and light, and which causes them to aggregate in'*
an infinite variety of ways, according to Nature’s fan-
ciful designs, and to form all these wondrous structures
we perceive around us ; it is, in fact, if our present views
be true, the most important force for us to consider in
ature. As the term electrostatic might imply a steady
electric condition, it should be remarked that in these
experiments the force is not constant, but varies at a
rate, which may be considered moderate, about one
million times a second, or thereabouts. This enables
me to produce many effects which are not producible
with an unvarying force.
When two conducting bodies are insulated and elec¬
trified, we say that an electrostatic force is actino-
between them. This force manifests itself in attractions*
repulsions _ and stresses in the bodies and space or
medium without. So great may be the strain exerted
36
in the air or whatever separates the two conducting
bodies, that it may break *»m. »* obKr J e ^
“ »"■*= ° f H ^ r ” ttodmdy whet, the force'
wmmm
to The coil is contained in a troug 1
and placed columns of hard
to rWt above «—
=Sy - t o poor an — ~ events
of enoimous po large sphere of
TeTbi:, which is connected to a larger insulated
Sstn^
held in my hand ; this simply to avoid burns. _
rh the metallic object to a distance of eight 01
approach the metalhc ^ breaks forth from
=-r^rrrr
r ra “yW° touches the wire. My art, is n« —rd
J a powerful electric current, v,tearing at about he
rite of one million times a second. All around me the
electrostatic force makes itself felt, and the am mole u s
and particles of dust dying about are acted npon>„d .
hammering violently against my body. cO great is
action 5 the particles that when the lights are turned
Sf y ™may see streams of feeble light appear on some
parts of my body. When such a streamer breaks out
37
on any part of the body it produces a sensation like the
hi-h and°the a f IC ‘ ^ P ° tentials ' sufficiently
S ’ and the frequency of the vibration rather low the
stohi W and b£ r 7 tUr6d Und6rthe tr emendous
the fo rm 0 f fi W ° U rUSh ° Ut vvith g^at force in
ju St a S oi, will K SPra} ; ° r J6t S ° thin aS t0 be invisible,
just as oh will when placed on the positive terminal o
tho^i itTn ThiS breaki ^ throu ** of the skin
t,h it may seem impossible at first, would nerhans
occur by reason of the tissues under the skin bein '
incomp^ably better conducting. This, at least appears
plausible, judging from some observations. ’ ? ‘ '
can make these streams of light visible to all bv ■
as*before Tnd af "T* ° bjeCt one of the terminals
* h l * ’ 31 d a PP ro aching my free hand to the brass
cod a! o h C ° f nnected to the second terminal of the
cod. As the hand is approached the air between it and
the sphere, or in the immediate neighborhood is mor e
break fo y rtW tated ’ *? 7 °“ ** StreamS of %ht now
(Fi! w ? Y gGr tipS and from the whole hand
C a). VV ere I to approach the hand closer powerful
sparks would jump f rom the brass sphere to my In d
which might be injurious. The streamers offer no par’
ticulai inconvenience, except that in the ends of Hie
mgei tips a burning sensation is felt. They should not
machffie beef ^ ^ PI '° dUCed b / a » -flue!
entlv . i , 6 ’ n man y res Pects they behave differ¬
ently have attached the brass sphere and plate to
7 ;^“ “ ° rd ' r ‘° preventth ' Marion
Si' ZtT jUrapi " g “ a “-irierabSit ce
the Sk Chm “* ,S tamabk the working of
The streams of light which you have observed issuing
from my hand are due a potential of abSSo
volts, alternating in rather irregular intei vais, somermng
like a million times a second. A vibration of the same
amplitude, but four times as fast, to maintain which over
3,000,000 volts would be required, would be more than
sufficient to envelop my body in a complete sheet of
flame. But this flame would not burn me up; quite
contrarily, the probability is that I would not be injured
in the least. Yet a hundredth part of that energy,
otherwise directed, would be amply sufficient to kill a
person.
ch may thus be passed
ds on the frequency and
)j making both of these
srgy may be passed into
discomfort, except, per-
sed by a true conduction
in in the body is felt and
: everywhere, if a current
:e body, the direction of
■'its flow would be at right angles to the surface; hence
the body of the experimenter offers an enormous section
to the current, and the density is very small, with the
exception of the arm, perhaps, where the density may
be considerable. But, if only a small fraction of that
energy would be applied in such a way that a current
would traverse the body in the same manner as a low
frequency current, a shock would be received which
might be fatal. A direct or low frequency alternating
current is fatal, I think, principally because its distribu¬
tion through the body is not uniform, as it must divide
itself in minute streamlets of great density, whereby
some organs are vitally injured. That such a process
occurs I harm not the least doubt, though no evidence
might apparently exist, or be found upon examination.
The surest to injure and destroy life is a continuous
current, but the most painful is an alternating current of
very low frequency. The expression of these views,
which are the result of long continued experiment and
observation, both with steady and varying currents, is
elicited by the interest which is at present taken in this
subject, and by the manifestly erroneous ideas which are
daily propounded in journals on this subject.
I may illustrate an effect of the electrostatic force by
another striking experiment, but before, I must call
your attention to one or two facts. I have said before
that when the medium between two oppositely electrified
bodies is strained beyond a certain limit it gives way
and, stated in popular language, the opposite electric
charges unite and neutralize each other. This breaking
down of the medium occurs principally when the force
'acting between the bodies is steady, or varies at a
moderate rate. Were the variation sufficiently rapid,
such a destructive' break would not occur, no matter
how great the force, for all the energy would be spent
4°
r; h a
bodies is the sma ei e be t0 be m t
comparing rates which
WM f;“ ou by an " *
the effect produced bya “P ^ ^ » wo large circular
brass 'plates' // (Fig- and Fig. hi), supported on
tK .„ effects of Rapidly Varying ant>
Fig5 , 60, Force.
^ablednsuiatings^on^-aectedt^e
ends of the secondab ^ ^ of , welve inches apart
before. f k You see the whole space
and set the coil ru bic feet filled with
between the plates, dearly two cubic feet,^ ^ ^
uniform light, ng fa ^ exper i me „t, which
streamers y intense. I have already pointed
are now much mo * treamers in commercial
out the importance ° ^ importance in some
; P n?e"n^c investigations. Often they are too
41
weak to be visible, hut ^ consuming
energy and tnodifymg e they produce
When intense, as they are 1 ^ Crookes
ozone in great quantity, an , < _ > tke chemical
has pointed out, nitrous acid. for a
action, that if s ^ e the atmosphere of a small
very long time 1 and throat are attacked,
room unbearable, for tnc ey dreamers refresh
But when moderately f thtndem Srm, and
the atmosphere wonderfully, to a tnun
“SS2 * *y ■*«—
f””f ow mnkfthe rate of change pt nn "of time much
I will now make the tendering the discharges
smaller. 1 his I - y duction co il, less frequent,
through the pnmaiy _ - dity Q f the vibration in
and also by d imimshii :b ^ ^ is conveniently
the secondary. emotive force over the air
secured by lowenng t re e ecm approaching the
gap in the aboutthree or four
two brass plates t . work y0 u see no
inches. When the coi is h me dium
streamers or light between the plates, 5 et u
“themes under y*—~ r omo ^
further augment the frnWmmm** se e the air
force in the primary ci q , 1 a shower of bril-
give way and the hall is 1 sparks could be Pro¬
liant and noisy spaiks, ■ _ They have been for
duced, also, with unvarying force. they were
, rMrc e, familiar phenomenon, thougn incy
many years a lamina y different apparatus. In
usually obtained fiom en 1 y .--dicallv different in
describing these two phenomena so ideally chtte ■
appearance, I have ^edly^oken^^ ^
^“d‘viewst say that there was an ^alternating
42
electromotive force” acting between the plates. This
term is quite proper and applicable in all cases where
there is evidence of at least a possibility of an essential
inter-dependence of the electric state of the plates 01
electric action in their neighborhood ; but if the plates
were removed to an infinite distance, or if at a finite dis¬
tance, there is no probability or necessity whatever for ■
such dependence. I prefer to use the term “electro¬
static force,” and to say that such a force is. acting
around each plate or electrified insulated body in gen¬
eral. There is an inconvenience in using this expres¬
sion, as the term incidentally means a steady electric
condition ; but a proper nomenclature will eventually
settle this difficulty.
I now return to the experiment to which I have
already alluded, and with which I desire to illustrate a
striking effect produced by a rapidly varying electro¬
static force. I attach to the end of the wire / (Fig. 7),
which is in connection with one of the terminals of the
secondary of the induction coil, an exhausted bulb, b.
This bulb contains a thin carbon filament, /, which is
fastened to a platinum wire, w, sealed in the glass and
leading outside of the bulb, where it connects to the
wire /. The bulb may be exhausted to any degree
attainable with ordinary apparatus. Just a moment
before you have witnessed the breaking down of the air
between the charged brass plates. You know that a
plate of glass or any other insulating material would
break down in like manner. Had I, therefore, a metallic
coating attached to the outside of the bulb or placed
near the same, and were this coating connected to the
other terminal of the coil,-you would be prepared to see
the glass give way if the strain were sufficiently increased.
Even were the coating not connected to the other ter¬
minal, but to an insulated plate, still, if you have followed
43
recent developments, you would naturally expect a 1 up¬
turn of the glass.
But it will certainly surprise you to note that under
the action of the varying electrostatic force, the glass
o-ives way when all other bodies are removed from the
bulb. In fact, all the surrounding bodies we perceive
might be removed to an infinite distance without affect¬
ing the result in the slightest. When the coil is set to
Fig. 7.—Breaking a Bulb on Open Circuit.
work, the glass is invariably broken through at the seal,
or other narrow channel, and the vacuum is quickly
impaired. Such a damaging break would not occur
with a steady force, even if the same were many times
greater. The break is due to the agitation of the
molecules of the gas within the bulb, and outside of
the same. This agitation, which is generally most
violent in the narrow pointed channel near the-seal,
causes a heating and rupture of the glass. The rupture
would, however, not occur, not even with a varying
force, if the medium filling the inside of the bulb, and
that surrounding it were perfectly homogeneous. The
break occurs much .quicker if the top of the bulb is
drawn out into a fine fibre. In bulbs used with these
coils such narrow, pointed channels must therefore be
avoided.
When a conducting body is immersed in air, or
similar insulating medium, consisting of, or containing,
small, freely movable particles capable of being electri¬
fied, and when the electrification of the body is made to
undergo a very rapid change—which is equivalent to
saying that the electrostatic force acting around the
body is varying in intensity—the small particles are
attracted and repelled, and their violent impacts against
the body may cause a mechanical motion of the latter.
Phenomena of this kind are noteworthy, inasmuch as
they have not been observed before with apparatus such
as has been commonly in use. If a very light conduct¬
ing sphere be suspended on an exceedingly fine wire,
and charged to a steady potential, however high, the
■.sphere will remain at rest. Even if the potential should
be rapidly varying, provided that the small particles of
matter, molecules or atoms, are evenly distributed, no
motion of the sphere should result. But if one side of
the conducting sphere is covered with a thick insulating
layer, the impacts of the particles will cause the sphere
to move about, generally in irregular curves, Fig. 8 a.
In like manner, as I have shown on a previous occasion,
a fan of metal sheet, Fig. 8 b, covered partially with
insulating material as indicated, and placed upon the
terminal of the coil so as to turn freely in it, is spun
around.
All these phenomena you have witnessed, and others
45
w 7?3b-: " "q T
which will be shown later are due to the presence of a
medium like air, and would not occur in a continuous
medium. The action of the air may be illustrated still
—-
/■Vff.Ja
Figs. 8a, 8 -J.—Mechanical Motions Produced by Varying Electrostatic
Force in a Gaseous Medium.
I!
i i
I
K
better by the following . experiment. I take a glass
tube /, Fig. 9, of about an inch in diameter, which has a
platinum wire w sealed in the lower end, and lo which
Fig. 9.—Showing the Effect of the Air.
is attached a thin lamp filament f I connect the wire
with the terminal of the coil and set the coil to work,
The platinum wire is now electrified positively and
46
negatively in rapid succession, and the wire and air inside
of the tube are rapidly heated by the impacts of the
particles, which may be so violent as to render the fila¬
ment incandescent. But if I pour oil in the tube, just
as soon as the wire is covered with the oil, all action
apparently ceases, and there is no marked evidence of
heating. The reason of this is that the oil is a practically
continuous medium. The displacements in such a con¬
tinuous medium are, with these frequencies, to all
appearance incomparably smaller than in air, hence the
work performed in such a medium is insignificant. But
oil would behave very differently with frequencies many
times as great, for even though the displacements be
small, if the frequency were much greater, considerable
work might be performed in the oil.
The electrostatic attractions and repulsions between
bodies of measurable dimensions are, of all the mani¬
festations of this force, the first so-called electrical phe¬
nomena noted. But, though they have been known to
us for many centuries, the precise nature of the mechan¬
ism concerned in these actions is still unknown to us,
and has not been even quite satisfactorily explained.
What kind of mechanism must that be? We cannot
help wondering when we observe two magnets attracting
and repelling each other with a force of hundreds of
pounds, with apparently nothing between them. We
have in our commercial dynamos magnets capable of
sustaining in mid-air tons of weight. But what are even
these forces acting between
magnets when compared
with the tremendous attractions and repulsions produced
by electrostatic force, to which there is apparently no
limit as to intensity. In lightning discharges bodies are
often charged to so high a potential that they are thrown
away with inconceivable force, and torn asunder, or
shattered into fragments. Still, even such effects cannot
w
47
compare with the attractions and repulsions which exist
between charged molecules or atoms, and which are suffi¬
cient to project them with speeds of many kilometres a
second, so that under their violent impact bodies are ren¬
dered highly incandescent and are volatilized. It is of
special interest for the thinker who inquires into the
nature of these forces to note that, whereas the actions
between individual molecules or atoms occur seemingly
under any condition, the attractions and repulsions of
bodies of measurable dimensions imply a medium pos¬
sessing insulating properties. So, if air, either by being
rarefied or heated, is rendered more or less conducting,
these actions between two electrified bodies practically
cease, while the actions between the individual atoms
continue to manifest themselves.
An experiment may serve as an illustration and as a
means of bringing out other features of interest. Some
time ago I showed that a lamp filament or wire mounted
in a bulb and connected to one of the terminals of a
high tension secondary coil is set spinning, the top of
the filament generally describing a circle. This vibra¬
tion was very energetic when the air in the bulb was at
ordinary pressure, and became less energetic when the
air in the bulb was strongly compressed ; it ceased alto¬
gether when the air was exhausted, so as to become com¬
paratively good conducting. I found at that time that
no vibration took place when the bulb was very highly
exhausted. But I conjectured that the vibration which
I ascribed to the electrostatic action between the walls
of the bulb and the filament should take place, also, in
a'highly exhausted bulb. To test this; under conditions
which were more favorable, a bulb like the one in Fig.
xo was constructed. It comprised a globe, b, in the neck
of which was sealed a platinum wire, w, carrying a thin
lamp filament, f. In the lower part of the globe a tube,
48
t, was sealed so as to surround the filament. The
exhaustion was carried as far as it was practicable with
the apparatus employed.
This bulb verified my expectation, for the filament
was set spinning when the current was turned on, and
became incandescent. It also showed another interest¬
ing- feature bearing upon the preceding remarks, namely,
when the filament had been kept incandescent some
time the narrow tube and the space inside were brought
to an elevated temperature, and as the gas in the tube
I-ia. 10. Showing the Influence of tub Conductivity of the Medium
U fON Electrostatic Actions Through Measurable Distance.
then became conducting, the electrostatic attraction
between the glass and the filament became very weak or
ceased, and the filament came to rest. When it came to
rest it would glow far more intensely. This was prob¬
ably due to its assuming the position in the centre of
the tube where the molecular bombardment was most
intense, and also partly to the fact that the individual
impacts were more violent, and that no part of the sup¬
plied energy was converted into mechanical movement.
Since, in accordance with accepted views, in this experi-
49
ment the incandescence must be attributed to the impacts
of the particles, molecules or atoms in the heated space,
these particles must, therefore, in order to explain such
action, be assumed to behave as independent carriers of
electric charges immersed in an insulating medium ; yet
there is no attractive force between the glass tube and
the filament, because the space in the tube is, as a whole,
conducting.
It is of some interest to observe in this connection
that, whereas the attraction between two electrified
bodies may cease, owing to the impairing of the insulat¬
ing power of the medium in which they are immersed,
the repulsion between the bodies may still be observed,
i his may be explained in a plausible way. When the
bodies are placed at some distance in a poorly conducting-
medium, such as slightly warmed or rarefied air, and
are suddenly electrified, opposite electric charges being
imparted to them, these charges equalize more or less by
leakage through the air. But if the bodies are similarly
electrified there is less opportunity afforded for such
dissipation, hence, the repulsion observed in such case is
greater than the attraction. Repulsive actions in a
gaseous medium are, however, as Professor Crookes has
shown, enhanced by molecular bombardment.
ON CURRENT OR DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY PHENOMENA.
So far, I have considered principally effects produced
by a varying electrostatic force in an insulating medium,
such as air. When such a force is acting upon a con¬
ducting body of measurable dimensions it causes within
the same or on its surface displacements of the elec¬
tricity, and gives rise to electric currents ; and these pro¬
duce another kind of phenomena, some of which I shall
Presently endeavor to illustrate. In presenting this
second class of electrical effects I will avail myself prin-
cipally of such as are producible without any return cir¬
cuit, hoping to interest you the more by presenting these
phenomena in a more or less novel aspect.
It has been for a long time customary, owing to the
limited experience with vibratory currents, to consider
an electric current as something circulating in a closed
conducting path. It was astonishing at first to realize
that a current may flow through the conducting path
even if the latter be interrupted, and it was still more
surprising to learn that sometimes it may be even easier
to make a current flow under such conditions than
Fig 11.—Showing Effects of Currents Flowing Through
Open Circuits.
through a closed path. But that old idea is gradually
disappearing, even among practical men, and will soon
be entirely forgotten.
If I connect an insulated metal plate, p, Fig. 11, to
one of the terminals t of the induction coil by means of
a wire, though this plate be very well insulated, a current
passes through the wire when the coil is set to work.
First, I wish to give you evidence that there is a Current
passing through the connecting wire. An obvious way
of demonstrating this is to insert between the terminal of
the coil and the insulated plate a very thin platinum or
5 1
German silver wire, w, and bring the latter to incan¬
descence or fusion by the current. This requires a
rather large plate or else current impulses of very high
potential and frequency. Another way is to take a coil,
c, Fig. ii, containing many turns of thin insulated wire,
and to insert the same in the path of the current to the
plate. When I connect one of the ends of the coil to
the wire leading to another insulated plate, p,. and its
other end to the terminal t* of the induction coil, and
set the latter to work, a current passes through the
inserted coil c, and the existence of the current may be
made manifest in various ways. For instance, I insert
an iron core, i, within the coil. The current being one
of very high frequency, if it be of some strength will
soon bring the iron core to a noticeably higher tempera¬
ture, as the hysteresis and current losses are great with
such high frequencies. One might take a core of some
size—laminated or not, it would matter little—but ordi¬
nary iron wire one-sixteenth or one-eighth of an inch
thick is suitable for the purpose. While the induction
coil is working, a current traverses the inserted coil, and
only a few moments are sufficient to .bring the iron wire
z to an elevated temperature sufficient to soften the
sealing wax s, and cause a paper washer/, fastened by
it to the iron wire, to fall off. But with the apparatus,
such as I have here, other much more interesting
demonstrations of this kind can be made. I have a
secondary s, Fig.-12, of coarse wire, wound upon a coil
similar to the first. In the preceding experiment the
current through the coil c, Fig. 11, was very small, but,
there being many turns, a strong heating effect was,
nevertheless, produced in the iron wire. Had I passed
that current through a conductor, in order to show the
heating of the latter, the current might have been too
small to produce the effect desired. But with this coil
provided with a secondary winding, I can now transform
the feeble current of high tension which passes through
the primary p into a strong secondary current of low
tension, and this current will quite certainly do what I
expect. In a small glass tube, t, Fig. 12, I have enclosed
a coiled platinum wire, w, this merely in order to protect
the wire. On each end of the glass tube is sealed a ter¬
minal of stout wire, to which one of the ends of the
platinum wire, w, is connected. I join the terminals of
the secondary coil to these terminals and insert the
primary, p, between the insulated plate p, and the
terminal t, of the induction coil as before. The latter
being set to work, the platinum wire, w, is instantly
Fig. 18 —Conversion on Open Circuit with Coil and Insulated Plate.
rendered incandescent, and can be fused, even if it be
very thick.
Instead of the platinum wire I now take an ordinary
fifty-volt sixteen candle power lamp. When I set the
induction coil in operation the lamp filament is brought
to high incandescence. It is, however, not necessary
to use the insulated plate, for the lamp l, Fig. 13, is
rendered incandescent even if the plate p, be discon¬
nected. The secondary may also be connected to the
primary, as indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 13, to
do away more or less with the electrostatic induction
or to modify the action otherwise.
I may here call attention to a number of interesting
observations with the lamp. First, I disconnect one of
the terminals of the lamp from the secondary s. When
the induction coil plays, a glow is noted which fills the
whole bulb. This glow is due to electrostatic induction.
It increases when the bulb is grasped with the hand,
and the capacity of the experimenter’s bod)?- thus added
to the secondary circuit The secondary, in effect, is
equivalent to a metallic coating, which would be placed
near the primary. If the secondary, or its equivalent,
Fig. 13.—Conversion on Open Circuit with Coil Alone.
the coating, were placed symmetrically to the primary,
the electrostatic induction would be nil under ordinary
conditions-—that is, when a primary return circuit is
used—as both halves would neutralize each other. The
secondary is in fact placed symmetrically to the primary,
but the action of both halves of the latter, when only
one of its ends is connected to the induction coif is
not exactly equal; hence electrostatic induction takes
place, and hence the glow in the bulb. I can nearly
equalize the action of both halves of the primary by
54
connecting the other free end of the same to the
insulated plate, as in the preceding experiment. When
the plate is connected, the glow disappears. With a
smaller plate it would not entirely disappear, and then
it would contribute to the brightness of the filament
Figs. 14 a , 145.—Effect ok Attached Plate with Low Frequencies.
when the secondary is closed, by warming the air in
the bulb.
To demonstrate another interesting feature, I have
adjusted the coils used in a certain way. I first connect
both the terminals of the lamp to the secondary, one
55
end of the- primary being connected to the terminal iq
of the induction coil, and the other to the insulated plate
p, as before. When the current is turned on, the lamp
glows brightly, as shown in Fig. 14 \b, in which c is a
fine wire coil and s a coarse wire secondary wound upon
it. If the insulated plate Pj is disconnected, leaving one
of the ends a of the primary insulated, the filament
becomes dark, or generally it diminishes in brightness
(Fig. 14a). Connecting again the plate p 1; and .raising
the frequency of the current, I make the filament quite
dark or barely red, Fig. 15& Once more I will discon¬
nect the plate. One will, of course, infer that when the
plate is disconnected, the current through the primary
will be weakened, that therefore the electromotive force
will fall in the secondary s, and that the brightness of
the lamp will diminish. This might be the case, and
the result can be secured by an easy adjustment of the
coils ; also by varying the frequency and potential of the
currents. But it is perhaps of greater interest to note
that the lamp increases in brightness when the plate is
disconnected (Fig. 15a). In this case all the energy the
primary receives is now sunk into it, like the charge of
a battery in an ocean cable, but most of that energy is
recovered through the secondary and used to light the
lamp. The current traversing the primary is strongest
at the end b, which is connected to the terminal rq of
the induction coil, and diminishes in strength towards the
remote end a. But the dynamic inductive effect exerted
upon the secondary s is now greater than befoitq when
the suspended plate was connected to the primary.
These results might have been produced by a number of
causes. For instance, the plate p ( being connected, the
reaction from the coil c may be such as to diminish the
potential at the terminal iq of the induction coil, and
therefore weaken the current through the primary
5 6
of the coil c. Or the disconnecting of the plate
may diminish ■ the capacity effect with relation to
the primary of the latter coil to such an extent that the
current through it is diminished, though the potential at
the terminal Tj of the induction coil may be the same.
or even higher. Or the result might have been pro¬
duced by the change of phase of the primary and
secondary currents and consequent reaction. But the
chief determining factor is the relation of the self-induc-
Jfy / 5 b
Fuss. 15a, 156.— Effect of Attached Plate with High Frequencies.
57
tion and capacity of coil c and plate p u and the fre¬
quency of the currents. The greater brightness of
the filament in Fig. 15a, is, however, in part due to the
heating of the rarefied gas in the lamp by electrostatic
induction, which, as before remarked, is greater when
the suspended plate is disconnected.
Still another feature of some interest I may here
bring to your attention. When the insulated plate is
disconnected and the secondary of the coil opened, by
approaching a small object to the secondary but very
small sparks can be drawn from it, showing that the
electrostatic induction is small in this case. But upon
the secondary being closed upon itself or through the
lamp, the filament glowing brightly, strong sparks are
obtained from the secondary. The electrostatic induc¬
tion is now much greater, because the closed secondary
determines a greater flow of current through the primary,
and principally through that half of it which is connected
to the induction coil. If, now, the bulb be grasped with
the hand, the capacity of the secondary with reference to
the primary is augmented by the experimenter’s body,
and the luminosity of the filament is increased ; the incan¬
descence now being due partly to the flow of current
through the filament, and partly to the molecular bom¬
bardment of the rarefied gas in the bulb.
The preceding experiments will have prepared one
for the next following results of interest obtained in- the
course of these investigations. Since I can pass a cur¬
rent through an insulated wire by merely connecting one
of its ends"to the source of electrical energy ; since I can
induce by it another current, magnetize an iron core, and,
in short, perform all operations as though a return circuit
were used, clearly I can also drive a motor by the aid of
only one wire. On a former occasion I have described
a simple form of motor, comprising a single exciting
1
coil, an iron core and disc.
5 £
o
o
o
Fig. 16 illustrates a modified
way of operating such an
alternate current motor by
currents induced in a trans¬
former connected to one lead,
and . several other arrange¬
ments of circuits for oper¬
ating a certain class of alter¬
nate motors founded on the
action of currents of differing
phase. In view of the present
state of the art, it is thought
sufficient to describe these
arrangements in a few woids
only. In the diagram, Fig.
16 II shows a primary coil,
p, connected with one of its
ends to the line l, leading
from a high tension trans¬
former terminal, tv In
inductive relation to this
primary p is a secondaiy s,
of coarse wire, in the circuit
of which is a coil, c. The
currents induced in the sec¬
ondary energize the iron
core z, which is preferably,
but not necessarily, sub¬
divided, and set the metal
disc d in rotation. Such a
motor, Mg, as diagrammatic-
ally shown in Fig. 16 II,
has been called a “ mag¬
netic lag motor,” but this
expression may be objected to by those who attrib-
59
ute the rotation of the disc to eddy currents circu¬
lating in minute paths when the core z is finally subdi¬
vided. In order to operate such a motor effecrivdy on
the plan indicated, the frequencies should not be to
hiah-not more than four or five thousand-though the
rotation is produced even with ten thousand pei secon
° r TFig. 16 I, a motor M t , having two energizing
circuits, a and B, is ^grammatically indicated. The
ci cuit a is connected to the line l, and in senes with it
is a primary r, which may have its free end connected
to an insulated plate p„ such connection being indicated
by the dotted lines. The other motor circuit
connected to the secondary s, which is m inductive
connect . p When the transformer
relation to the primary
terminal Ti is alternately electnfied eunents t ra
the open line l and also circuit a and primary P. I he
eunents through the latter induce secondary currents
in the circuit s, which pass through the energizing coi
B of the motor. The eunents through the secondary s
and those through the primary r differ in phase nine y
dei-ees or neariy so, and are capable of rotating an
S placed in inductive relation to the circuits
a ai ^ B p. CT i6 nIj a similar motor m 3 , with two ener¬
gizing circuits a, and b, is illustrated. A Penary p,
connected with one of its ends to tie m ’
secondary s, which is preferably wound for a toleiabl)
hio-h electromotive force, and to which the two enei-
erbino- circuits of the motor are connected, one duectly
^ the ends of the secondary and the other through a
f . hv the action of which the currents
condenser c, by tne action ui
traversing the circuit A t and B t are made
Pha iii Fig. 16 IV, still another arrangement is shown.
6o
In this case two primaries iq and P a are connected to
the line l, one through a condenser c of small capacity,
and the other directly. The primaries are provided
with secondaries Sj and s 2 , which are in series with
the energizing circuits a 2 and in and a motor m 3 , the
condenser c again serving to produce the requisite
difference in the phase of the currents traversing the
motor circuits. As such phase motors with two 01-
more circuits are now well known in the art, they
have been here illustrated diagrammatically. No diffi¬
culty whatever is found in operating a motor in the
manner indicated or in similar ways, and although such
experiments up to this day present only scientific
interest, they may at a period not far distant be carried
out with practical objects in view.
It is thought useful to devote here a few remarks to
the subject of operating devices of all kinds by means
of only one leading wire. It is quite obvious that
when high frequency currents are made use of, ground
connections are—at least when the electromotive force
of the currents is great—better than a return wire.
Such ground connections are objectionable with steady
or low frequency currents, on account of destructive
chemical actions of the former, and disturbing influences ;;
exerted by both on the neighboring circuits; but with
high frequencies these actions practically do not exist.
Still, even ground connections become superfluous when
the electromotive force is very high, for soon a con¬
dition is reached when the current may be passed more
economically through open than through closed
conductors. Remote as might seem an industrial
application of such single wire transmission of energy
to one not experienced in such lines of experiment, it
will not seem so to anyone who for some time has
carried on investigations of such nature. Indeed, I
6 l
cannot see why such a plan should not be practicable.
Nor should it be thought that for carrying out such a
plan currents of very high frequency are implicitly
required, for just as soon as potentials of, say, 30,000
volts are used, the single wire transmission may be
effected with low frequencies, and experiments have
been made by me from which these inferences are made.
When the frequencies are very high, it has been
found in laboratory practice quite easy to regulate the
effects in the manner shown in diagram, Fig. 17. Here
two primaries, r and p,, are shown, each connected with
Fi G . 17. —Single Wire Conversion and Distribution, with Simple
Means for Regulating the Effects.
one of its ends to the line l, and with the other end to
the condenser plates c and c 1 , respectively. Near these
are placed other condenser plates, Cj c\, the foimei
being connected to the line L and the lattei to an
insulated larger plate p a . On the primaries are wound
secondaries s and S] of coarse wire, connected to the
devices m and d respectively. By varying the distances
of the condenser plates c and c\ and Cj and c^, the
currents through the secondaries s and s t are varied in
intensity. The curious feature is the great sensitive¬
ness, the slightest change in the distance of the plates.
6 2
producing considerable variations in the intensity or
strength of the currents. The sensitiveness may be
rendered extreme by making the frequency such that
the primary itself, without any plate attached to its free
end, satisfies, in conjunction with the closed secondary,
the condition of resonance. In such condition an
extremely small change in the capacity of the free terminal
produces great variations. For instance, I have been
able to adjust the conditions so that the mere approach
of a person to the coil produces a considerable change in
the brightness of the lamps attached to the secondary.
Such observations and experiments possess, of course, at
present chiefly scientific interest, but they may soon
become of practical importance.
| • Very high frequencies are, of course, not practicable
iwith motors, on account of the necessity of employing
iron cores. But one may use sudden discharges of
low frequency, and thus obtain certain advantages of
high frequency currents without rendering the iron
core entirely incapable of following the changes, and
without entailing a very great expenditure of energy
in the core. I have found it quite practicable to
operate with such low frequency disruptive discharges
of condensers alternating current motors. A certain
class of such motors which I advanced a few years ago,
which contain closed secondary circuits, will rotate
quite vigorously when the discharges are directed
through the exciting coils. One reason.that such a
motor operates so well with these discharges is that
the difference of phase between the primary and
secondary currents is ninety degrees, which is generally
not the case with harmonically rising and falling
currents of low frequency. It might not be without
interest to show an experiment with a simple motor
of this kind, inasmuch as it is commonly thought that
63
disruptive discharges are unsuitable for such purposes.
The motor is illustrated in Fig. 18. It comprises a
rather large iron core i, with slots on the top into which
are embedded thick copper washers c c. In proximity
to the core is a freely movable metal disc d. The core
is provided with a primary exciting coil c, the ends a
and b of which are connected to the terminals of the
secondary s of an ordinary transformer, the primary p
of the latter being connected to an alternating distri¬
bution circuit or. generator g of low or moderate
frequency. . The terminals of the secondary s are
attached to a condenser c, which discharges through
Fig. 18.—Operating a Motor by Disruptive Discharges.
an air gap d d, which may be placed in series or shunt
to the coil c. When the conditions are properly
chosen the disc d rotates with considerable effort, and
the iron core i does not get very perceptibly hot.
With currents from a high frequency alternator, on the
contrary, the core gets rapidly hot, and the disc rotates
with a much smaller effort. To perform the experi¬
ment properly it should be first ascertained that the
disc d is not set in rotation when the discharge is not
occurring at d d. It is preferable to use a large iron
core and a condenser of large capacity, so as to bring
64
the superimposed quicker oscillation to a very low
pitch, or to do away with it entirely. By observing
certain elementary rules I have also found it practicable
to operate ordinary series or shunt direct current motors
with such disruptive discharges, and this can be done
with or without a return wire.
ffy/9// //y./.9c
Figs. 19 a, 19&, 19c. —Impedance Phenomena.
Among the various current phenomena observed,
perhaps the most interesting are those of impedance
presented by conductors to currents varying at a rapid
rate. In my first paper before the American Institute
65
of Electrical Engineers I have described a few striking
observations of this kind. Thus I showed that when
such currents or sudden discharges are passed through a
thick metal bar, there may be points at the bar only a
few inches apart which have a sufficient potential differ¬
ence between them to maintain at bright incandescence
an ordinary filament lamp. I have also ascribed the
curious behavior of rarefied gas surrounding a con¬
ductor to such sudden rushes of current. These phe¬
nomena have been since more carefully studied, and one
or two novel experiments of this kind are deemed of
sufficient interest to be described here.
With reference to Fig. 19a, 'b and Bj are very stout
copper bars connected at their lower ends to plates c and
c 1( respectively, of a condenser, the opposite plates of the
latter being connected to the terminals of the secondary
s of a high tension transformer, the primary p of which
is supplied with alternating currents from an ordinary
low frequency dynamo, G, or distribution circuit. The
condenser discharges through an adjustable gap, d d, as
usual. By establishing a rapid vibration it was found
quite easy to perform the following curious experiment :
The bars b and b, were joined at the top by a low volt¬
age lamp, 4; a little lower was placed by means of
clamps, cc„ a fifty-volt lamp, 4, and still lower another
hundred-volt lamp, /„ and, finally, at a certain distance
below the latter lamp an exhausted tube, t. By carefully
determining the positions of these devices it was found
practicable to maintain them all at their proper illuminat¬
ing power. Yet they were all connected in multiple arc
to the two stout copper bars, and required widely differ¬
ent pressures. This experiment requires, of course;
some time for adjustment, but is quite easily performed.
In Figs. 196 and 19 c, two other experiments are illus¬
trated which, unlike the previous experiment, do not
66
require very careful adjustments. In Fig. 20 b two
lamps, l x and 4 the former a hundred-volt and the latter
a fifty-volt, are placed in certain positions, as indicated,
the hundred-volt lamp being below the fifty-volt lamp.
When the arc is playing at d d, and the sudden dis¬
charges passed through the bars B b, the fifty-volt lamp
will, as a rule, burn brightly, or, at least, this result is
easily secured, while the hundred-volt lamp will burn
very low or remain quite dark', Fig. 19 b. Now, the
bars b b may be joined at the top by a thick cross-bar b 2 ,
and it is quite easy to maintain the hundred-volt lamp at
full candle power, while the fifty-volt lamp remains dark,
Fig. 20.—Plan Followed in Observing the Effects of Resonance.
Fig. 19^. These results, as I have pointed out pre¬
viously, should not be considered to be due exactly to
frequency, but rather to the time rate of change, which
may be great even with low frequencies. A great many
other results of the same kind, equally interesting,
especially to those who are only used to manipulating
steady currents, may be obtained, and they afford precious
clues in investigating the nature of electric currents.
In the preceding experiments I have already had
occasion to show some light phenomena, and it would be
now proper to study these in particular; but to make
h
<*
67
this investigation more complete, I think it necessary to
first make a few remarks on the subject of electrical
resonance, which has to be always observed in carrying
out these experiments.
ON ELECTRICAL RESONANCE.
The effects of resonance are being more and more
noted by engineers, and are becoming of great import¬
ance in the practical operation of apparatus of all kinds
with alternating currents. A few general remarks may,
therefore, be made concerning these effects. It is clear
that if we succeed in employing the effects of reson ance
practically in the operation of electric devices, the return
wire will, as a matter of course, become unnecessary, for
"the electric vibration may be conveyed with one wire
just as well as, and sometimes even better than, with
two. The question first to answer is, then, whether
pure resonance effects are producible. Theory and
experiment both show that such is impossible in Nature,
for as the oscillation becomes more and more vigorous,
the losses in the vibrating bodies and environing media
rapidly increase, and necessarily check the vibration,
which otherwise would go on increasing forever. It is
a fortunate circumstance that pure resonance is not pro¬
ducible, for if it were' there is no telling what dangers
might not lie in wait for the innocent experimenter.
But, to a certain degree, resonance is producible, the
magnitude of the effects being limited by the imperfect
conductivity and imperfect elasticity of the media, or,
generally stated, by frictional losses. The smaller these
losses, the more striking .are the effects. The same is
the case in mechanical vibration. A stout steel bar may
be set in vibration by drops of water falling upon it at
proper intervals; and with glass, which is more perfectly
elastic, the resonance effect is still more remarkable, for
68
a goblet may be burst by singing into it a note of the
proper pitch. The electrical resonance is the more
perfectly attained, the smaller the resistance or the
impedance of the conducting path, and the more perfect
the dielectric. In a Leyden jar discharging through a
short stranded cable of thin wires, these requirements
are probably best fulfilled, and the resonance effects
are, therefore, very prominent. Such is not the case
with dynamo machines, transformers and their circuits,
or with commercial apparatus in general, in which the
presence of iron cores complicates or renders impossible
the action. In regard to Leyden jars, with which reso¬
nance effects are frequently demonstrated, I would say
that the effects observed are often attributed, but are
seldom due, to true resonance, for an error is quite easily
made in this respect. This may be undoubtedly demon¬
strated by the following experiment: Take, for instance,
two large insulated metallic plates or spheres, which
I shall designate a and b ; place them at a certain small
distance apart, and charge them from a frictional or
influence machine to a potential so high that just a slight
increase of the difference of potential between them will
cause the small air or insulating space to break down.
This is easily reached by making a few preliminary trials.
If, now, another plate—fastened on an insulating handle
and connected by a wire to one of the terminals of a
high tension secondary of an induction coil, which is
maintained in action by an alternator (preferably high
frequency)—is approached to one of the charged bodies
a or b, so as to be nearer to either one of them, the
discharge will invariably occur between them ; at least,
it will if the potential of the coil in connection with the
plate is sufficiently high. But the explanation of this
will soon be found in the fact that the approached plate
acts inductively upon the bodies a and b, and causes a
69
spark to pass between them. When this spark occurs,
the charges which were previously imparted to these
bodies from the influence machine must needs be lost,
since the bodies are brought in electrical connection
through the arc formed. Now, this arc is formed
whether there be resonance or not. But even if the
spark would not be produced, still there is an alternating
electromotive force set up between the bodies when the
plate is brought near one of them; therefore, the
approach of the plate, if it does not always actually, will,
at any rate, tend to break down the air space by
inductive action. Instead of the spheres or plates a and
b, we may take the coatings of a Leyden jar with the
same result; and in place of the machine, which is a
high frequency alternator preferably, because it is more
suitable for the experiment and also for the argument,
we may take another Leyden jar or battery of jars.
When such jars are discharging through a circuit of
low resistance, the same is traversed by currents of very
high frequency. The plate may now be connected to
one of the coatings of the second jar, and when it is
brought near to the first jar just previously charged to a
high potential from an influence machine, the result is
the same as before,, and the first jar will discharge
through a small air space upon the second being
caused to discharge. But both jars and their cir¬
cuits need not be tuned any' closer than a basso
profundo is to the note produced by a mosquito, as
small sparks will be produced through, the air space,
or, at least, the latter will be considerably more strained,
owing to the setting up of an alternating electromotive
force by induction, which takes place when one of the
jars begins to discharge. Again, another error of a
similar nature is quite easily made. If the circuits
of the two jars are run parallel and close together, and
7 °
the experiment has been performed of discharging one
by the other, and now a coil of wire be added to one
of the circuits, whereupon the experiment does not
succeed, the conclusion that this is due to the fact that
the circuits are now not tuned would be far from being
safe; for the two circuits act as condenser coatings,
and the addition of the coil to one of them is equivalent
to bridging them, at the point where the coil is placed,
by a small condenser, and the effect of the latter might
be to prevent the spark from jumping through the
discharge space by diminishing the alternating electro¬
motive force acting across the same. All these remarks,
and many more which might be added but for fear
of wandering too far from the subject, are made with
the pardonable intention of cautioning the unsuspecting
student, who might gain an entirely unwarranted opinion
of his skill when seeing every experiment succeed; but
they are in no way thrust upon the experienced as novel
observations.
In order to make reliable observations of electric
resonance effects, it is very desirable, if not necessary, to
employ an alternator giving currents which rise and fall
harmonically, as in working with make-and-brealc currents
the observations are not always trustworthy, since many
phenomena which depend on the rate of change may
be produced with frequencies widely different. Even
when making such observations with an alternator one
is apt to be mistaken. When a circuit is connected to
an alternator there are an infinite number of values for
capacity and self-induction which, in conjunction, will
satisfy the condition of resonance. So there . are in
mechanics an infinite number of tuning-forks which will
respond to a note of a certain pitch, or loaded springs
which have a definite period of vibration. But the
resonance will be most perfectly attained in that case m
71
which the motion is effected with the greatest freedom.
Now, in mechanics, considering the vibration in the
common medium—that is, air—it is of compaiatively
little importance whether one tuning-fork be somewhat
larger than another, because the losses in the air aie not
very considerable. One may, of course, enclose a tuning-
fork in an exhausted vessel, and by thus leducingthe ail
resistance to a minimum obtain better lesonant action.
Still, the difference would not be very great. But it
would make a great difference if the tuning-fork were
immersed in mercury. In the electrical vibration it is of
enormous importance to arrange the conditions so that
the vibration is effected with the greatest freedom. The
magnitude of the resonance effect depends, under other¬
wise equal conditions, on the quantity of electricity set
in motion, or on the strength of the current di iven
through the circuit. But the circuit opposes the passage
of the currents by reason of its impedance and, there¬
fore, to secure the best action, it is necessary to reduce
the impedance to a minimum. It is impossible to ovei-
come it entirely, but merely in part, for ohmic resistance
cannot be overcome. But when the frequency of the
impulses is very great, the flow of the current is practi¬
cally determined by self-induction. Now, self-induction
can be overcome by combining it with capacity. If the
relation between these is such that at the frequency used
they annul each other—that is, have such values as to
satisfy the condition of resonance and the gieatest
quantity of electricity is made to flow through the
external circuit, then the best result is obtained. It is
simpler and safer to join the condenser in series with the
self-induction. It is clear that in such combinations
there will be, for a given frequency, and considering
only the fundamental vibration, values which will give
the best result with the condenser in shunt to the self-
-
72
induction coil; of course, more such values than with
the condenser in series. But practical conditions deter¬
mine the selection. In the latter case, in performing
the experiments, one may take a small self-induction
and a large capacity, or a small capacity and a large self-
induction; but the latter is preferable, because it is
inconvenient to adjust a large capacity by small steps.
By taking a coil with a very large self-induction,
the critical capacity is reduced to a very small value,
and the capacity of the coil itself may be sufficient.
It is easy, especially by observing certain artifices, to
wind a coil through which the impedance will be
reduced to the value of the ohmic resistance only; and
for any coil there is, of course, a frequency at which
the maximum current will be made to pass through the
coil. The observation of the relation between self-
induction, capacity and frequency is becoming important
in the operation of alternate current apparatus, such as
transformers or motors, because by a judicious determi¬
nation of the elements the employment of an expensive
condenser becomes unnecessary. Thus it is possible
to pass through the coils of an alternating current
motor, under the normal working conditions, the
required current with a low electromotive force, and do
away entirely'with the false current, and the larger the
motor the easier such a plan becomes practicable ; but
it is necessary for this to employ currents of very high
potential or high frequency.
In Fig. 20 I, is shown a plan which has been
followed in the study of the resonance effects by means
of a high frequency alternator, c is a coil of many
turns, which is divided in small separate sections for
the purposes of adjustment. The final adjustment was
made sometimes with a few thin iron wires (though
this is not always advisable), or with a closed secondary.
The coil c is connected with one of its . ends to the
73
line L from the alternator g, and with the other end
to one of the plates cof a condenser c c h the plate (<q)
of the latter being connected to a much larger plate Pj.
In this manner, both capacity and self-induction were
adjusted to suit the dynamo frequency.
As regards the rise of potential through resonant
action, of course, theoretically, it may amount to ‘
anything, since it depends on self-induction and resist¬
ance, and since these may have any value. But in
practice one is limited in the selection of these values,
and, besides these, there are other limiting causes. One
may start with, say, 1,000 volts, and raise the electro¬
motive force to fifty times that value, but one cannot
start with 100,000 and raise it to ten times that value,
because of the losses in the media, which are great,
especially if the frequency is high. It should be possible
to start with, for instance, two volts from a high or low
frequency circuit of a dynamo, and raise the electromo¬
tive force to many hundred times that value. Thus coils
of the proper dimensions might be connected each with
only one of its ends to the mains from a machine of low
electromotive force, and though the circuit of the
machine would not be closed, in the ordinary acceptance
of tiic term, yet the machine might be burned out.if.a
proper resonance effect would be obtained..I have not
'been able to produce, nor have I observed with currents
from the dynamo machine, s uc h great rises of potential.
It is possible, if not probable, that with currents obtained
from apparatus containing iron, the disturbing influence
of the latter is the cause that these theoretical possibili¬
ties cannot be realized. But if such is the case, I
attribute it solely to the hysteresis'and Faucault current
losses in the core. Generally, it was necessaiy to
transform upward, when the electromotive force was
very low, and an ordinary form of induction coil was
74
usually employed; but sometimes the arrangement
illustrated in Fig. 20 II has been found to be conven¬
ient. In this case, a coil c is made in a great many
sections, a few of these being used as the primary. In
this manner, both primary and secondary are adjust¬
able. One end of the coil is connected to the line l*
from the alternator, and the other line l is connected to
the intermediate point of the coil. Such a coil, with
adjustable primary and secondary, will be found also
convenient in experiments with the disruptive discharge.
When true resonance is obtained, the top of the wave
must, of course, be on the free end of the coil, as, for
instance, at the terminal of the phosphorescence bulb b.
This is easily recognized by observing the potential of a
point on the wire w near to the coil.
In connection with resonance effects and the prob¬
lems of transmission of energy over a single conductor,
which was previously considered, I would say a few
words on a subject which constantly fills my thoughts,
and which concerns the welfare of all. I mean the
-transmission of intelligible signals, or, perhaps, even
power, to any distance without the use. of. wires. I am
becoming daily more convinced of the practicability of
the scheme ; and though I know full well that the great
majority of scientific men will not believe that such
results can be practically and immediately realized, yet I
think that all consider the developments in recent years
by a number of workers to have been such as to encour¬
age thought and experiment in this direction. My con¬
viction has grown so strong that I no longer look upon
this plan of energy or intelligence transmission as a mere
theoretical possibility, but as a serious problem in elec¬
trical engineering, which must be carried out some day.
The idea of transmitting intelligence without wires is the
natural outcome of the most recent results of electrical
75
investigations. Some enthusiasts have expressed their
belief that telephony to any distance by induction
through the air is possible. I cannot stretch my imagin¬
ation so far, but 1 do. firmly., believe that it is practicable
to disturb, by means of powerful machines, the electro¬
static condition of the earth/and thus transmit .intelli¬
gible signals, and, perhaps, power. In fact, what is
there against the carrying out of such a scheme ? he..
now know that electric, vibration.may.be.transmitted.
through a single conductor. Why, then, nor. try to avail
ourselves of the earth for.this purpose? We need not
be frightened by the idea of distance. To the weary
wanderer counting the mile-posts, the earth may appear
very large ; but to that happiest of all men, the astrono¬
mer, who gazes at the heavens, and by their standard
judges the magnitude of our globe, it appeals, very
small. And so I think it must seem to the electrician ;
. for when he considers the speed with which an electiic
disturbance is propagated through the earth, all his ideas
of distance must completely vanish.
A point of great importance would be first: to know
what is the capacity w the earth, and wha±.charge, does
it contain if electrified. Though we have no positive
evidence of a charged body existing in space without
other oppositely electrified bodies being near, there is a
fair probability that the earth is such a body, for by
whatever process it was separated from other bodies—
and this is the accepted view of its origin it must have
retained a charge, as occurs in all processes of mechan¬
ical separation. If it be a charged body insulated m
space, its capacity should be extremely small less than
one-thousandth of a farad. But the upper strata of .the
air are conducting,, and so, perhaps, is the medium. in
free space beyond the atmosphere, and the^may ^Ojatam
an opposite charge. Then the capacity might be incom-
7 6
parably greater. In any case, it is of the greatest impor¬
tance to get an idea of what quantity of electricity the
earth contains. It is difficult to say whether we shall
ever acquire this necessary knowledge, but there is hope
that we may, and that is by means of electrical leso-
nance. If ever we can ascertain at what period the
earth’s charge, when disturbed, oscillates with respect to
an oppositely electrified system or known circuit, we
shall know a fact possibly of the greatest importance to
the welfare of the human race. I propose to seek for
the period by means of an electrical oscillator or a
source of alternating electric currents. One of the
terminals of the source would be connected to earth, as,
for instance, to the city water mains, the other to an
insulated body of large surface. .It is. possible that the
outer conducting air strata or free space contains an
opposite charge, and that, together with the earth, they
form a condenser of very large capacity. In such case
the period of vibration may be very low, and an alternat¬
ing dynamo machine might serve for the purpose of the
experiment. I would then transform the current to a
potential as high as it would be found possible, and con¬
nect the ends of the high tension secondary to the
ground and to the insulated body. By varying the fre¬
quency of the currents, and carefully observing the
potential of the insulated body, and watching for the
disturbance at various neighboring points of the earth’s
surface, resonance might be detected. Should, as the
majority of scientific men in all probability believe, Jthe
period be extremely small, then a dynamo machine
would not do, and a proper electrical oscillator would
have to be produced, and perhaps it might not be pos¬
sible to obtain such rapid vibrations. But whet'her
this be possible or not, and whether the earth con¬
tains a charge or not, and whatever may be its period
77
«F"
of vibration, it certainly is possible—for of this we
have daily evidence—to produce some
electrical disturbance sufficiently power¬
ful to be perceptible by suitable instru¬
ments at any point of the earth’s surface.
Assume that a source of alternating
currents, s, be connected, as in Fig. 21,
with one of its terminals to earth (con¬
venient to the water mains), and with
the other to a body of large suiface, r.
When the electric oscillation is set up,
there will be a movement of electricity in
and out of p, and alternating currents will
pass through the earth, converging to or
diverging from the point c, where the
ground connection is made. In this man¬
ner neighboring points on the eaiths
surface within a certain radius will be
disturbed. But the disturbance will di¬
minish with the distance, and the dis¬
tance at which the effect will still be
perceptible will depend on the quantity
of electricity set in motion. Since the
body p is insulated, in order to displace a
considerable quantity the potential of the
source must be excessive, since there
would be limitations as to the suiface of
p. The conditions might be adjusted so
that the generator or source, s, will set up
the same electrical movement as though its
circuit were closed. Thus it is ceitainly
practicable to impress an electiic vibia-
tion, at least of a certain low period,
upon the earth by means of proper
At what distance such a vibration might
.'sk
'6i
5
machinery.
73
be made perceptible can only be conjectuied. I have
on another occasion considered the question how the
earth might behave to electric disturbances. There is
no doubt that, since in such an experiment the electrical
density at the surface could be but extremely small, con¬
sidering the size of the earth, the air would not act as a
very disturbing factor, and there would be not much
energy lost through the action of the air, which would
be the case if the density were great. Theoretically,
then, it could not require a great amount of energy to
produce a disturbance perceptible at great distance, or
even all over the surface of the globe. Now, it is quite
certain that at any point within a certain radius of the
source, s, a properly adjusted self-induction and capacity
device can be set in action by resonance. But not only
can this be done, but another source, s„ Fig. 21, similar
to s. or any number of such sources, can be set to work
in synchronism with the latter, and the vibration thus
intensified and spread over a large area, or a flow of
electricity produced to or from the source Sj, if the
same be of opposite phase to the source s. I think that,
beyond doubt, it is possible to operate electrical devices
in a city, through the ground or pipe system, by reso¬
nance from an electrical oscillator located at a cential
point. But the practical solution of this problem would
be of incomparably smaller benefit to man than the
realization of the scheme of transmitting intelligence, or,
perhaps, power, to any distance through the eaith 01
environing medium. If this is at all possible, distance
does not mean anything. Proper apparatus must first
be produced, by means of which the problem can be
attacked, and I have devoted much thought to this sub¬
ject. I am firmly convinced that it can be done, and
hope that we shall live to see it done.
79
ON THE LIGHT PHENOMENA PRODUCED BY HIGH FRE¬
QUENCY CURRENTS OF HIGH POTENTIAL, AND
GENERAL REMARKS RELATING TO THE SUBJECT.
Returning now to the light effects, which it has been
the chief object to investigate, it is thought proper to
divide these effects into four classes : 1. Incandescence
of a solid. 2. Phosphorescence. 3. Incandescence 01
phosphorescence of a rarefied gas; and, 4. Luminosity
produced in a gas at ordinary pressure. The first question
is, How are these luminous effects produced ? In oidei
to answer this question as satisfactorily as I am able to
do in the light of accepted views, and with the,experience
acquired, and to add some interest to this demonstration,
I shall dwell here upon a feature which I consider of
great importance, inasmuch as it promises, besides, to
throw a better light upon the nature of most of the
phenomena produced by high frequency electric currents.
I have on other occasions pointed out the great import¬
ance of the presence of the rarefied gas, or atomic
medium in general, around the conductor through, which
alternate currents of high frequency are passed, as
regards the heating, of the conductor by the currents.
My experiments described some time ago have shown
that the higher the frequency and potential difference of
the currents, the more important becomes the rarefied
a-as in which.the conductor is immersed, as a factor of
the heating. The potential difference, however, is, as I
then pointed out, a more important element than the
frequency. When both of these are sufficiently high,
the heatihg may be almost entirely due to the presence
of the rarefied gas. The experiments to follow will
show the importance of the rarefied gas, or generally of
a-as at ordinary or other pressure, as regards the incan¬
descence or other luminous effects produced by currents
of this kind.
8o
I take two ordinary fifty-volt sixteen candle power
lamps which are in every respect alike, with the
exception that one has been opened at the top and
the air has filled the bulb, while the other is at the
ordinary degree of exhaustion of commercial lamps.
When I attach the lamp which is exhausted to the
terminal of the secondary of the coil, which I have
already used, as in experiments illustrated in Fig. 15 a,
for instance, and turn on the current, the filament, as
you have before seen, comes to high incandescence.
When I attach the second lamp, which is filled with
air, instead of the former, the filament still glows, but
much less brightly. This experiment illustrates only
in part the truth of the statements before made. The
importance of the filament’s being immersed in rarefied
gas is plainly noticeable, but not to such a degree as
might be desirable. The reason is that the secondary
of this coil is wound for low tension, having only 150
turns, and the potential difference at the terminals of
the lamp is therefore small. Were I to take another
coil with many more turns in the secondary, the effect
would be increased, since it depends partially on the
potential difference, as before remarked. But since
the effect likewise depends on the frequency, it may be
properly stated that it depends on the time rate of
the variation of the potential difference. The greater
this variation, the more important becomes the gas
as an element of heating. I can produce a much
greater rate of variation in another way, which, besides,
has the advantage of doing away with the objections
which might be made in the experiment just shown,
even if both the lamps were connected in series 01-
multiple arc to the coil, namely, that in consequence
of the reactions existing between the primary and
secondary coil, the conclusions aie lendered unceitain.
81
This result 1 secure by charging from an ordinary
transformer, which is fed from the alternating current
supply station, a battery of condensers, and discharging
the latter directly through a circuit of small sel -
induction, as before illustrated in Figs. 19a, 190, * 9 C -
In Figs. 22a, 22 b and 22c, the heavy copper bars
B b,, are connected to the opposite coatings of a battery
of condensers, or. generally in such way that the higr
frequency or sudden discharges are made, to traverse
them. I connect first an ordinary fifty-volt incandescent
lamp to the bars by means of the clamps c c. The dis-
Fig. 22/t
Figs. 22a, 225, 22c.— Showing the Effect of the Presence
of a Gaseous Medium.-
charges being passed through the lamp, the filament is
rendered incandescent, though the current through it is
very small, and would not be nearly sufficient to pro¬
duce a visible effect under the conditions of ordinaly use
of the lamp. Instead of this I now attach to the bars
another lamp exactly like the first, but with the seal broken
off, the bulb being therefore filled with air at oidinaiy
pressure. When the discharges are directed through
the filament, as before, it does not become incandescent.
But the result might still be attributed to one of the
82
many possible reactions. I therefore connect both
the lamps in multiple arc, as illustrated in Fig. 22 a.
Passing the discharges through both the lamps, again
the filament in the exhausted lamp / glows very brightly,
while that in the non-exhausted lamp l x remains dark, as
previously. But it should not be thought that the latter
lamp is taking only a small fraction of the energy
supplied to both the lamps ; on the contrary, it may
consume a considerable portion of the energy, and it
may become even hotter than the one which burns
brightly. In this experiment the potential difference at
the terminals of the lamp varies in sign, theoretically,
three to four million times a second. The ends of the
filaments are correspondingly electrified, and the gas in
the bulbs is violently agitated, and a large portion of the
supplied energy is thus converted into heat. In the
non-exhausted bulb there being a few million times
more gas molecules than in the exhausted one, the bom¬
bardment, which is most violent at the ends of the
filament, in the neck of the bulb, consumes a large por¬
tion of the energy without producing any visible effect
The reason is that, there being many molecules, the
bombardment is quantitatively considerable, but 'the
individual impacts are not very violent, as the speeds of
the molecules are comparatively small, owing to the small
free path. In the exhausted bulb, on the contrary, the
speeds are very great and the individual impacts are
violent, and, therefore, better adapted to produce a
visible effect. Besides, the convection of heat is greater
in the former bulb. In both the bulbs the current trav¬
ersing the filaments is very small, incomparably smaller
than that which they require on an ordinary low
frequency circuit. The potential difference, however,
at the ends of the filaments is very great, and might be
possibly 20,000 volts, or more, if the filaments were
straight and their ends far apart. In the oidinaiy lamp
a spark generally occurs between the ends of the fila¬
ment, or between the platinum wires outside, befoi e
such a difference of potential can be reached.
It might be objected, in the experiment before shown,
that the lamps being in multiple arc, the exhausted lamp
might take a much larger current, and that the effect
observed might not be exactly attributable to the action
of the gas in the bulbs. Such objections will lose much
weighUf 1 connect the lamps in series with the same
result. When this is done and the discharges are
directed through the filaments, it is again noted that the
filament in the non-exhausted bulb remains dark,
while that in the exhausted one (/) glows even more
intensely than under its normal conditions of woiking,,
Fig. 22 b. According to general ideas, the current !
through the filaments should now be the same, weie it
not modified by the presence of the gas around the
filaments. . -
At this juncture I may point out another interesting
feature which illustrates the effect of the rate of change
of potential of the currents. I will leave the two lamps
connected in series to the bars b, B t as in the pievious
experiment, Fig. 22 b, but will presently 1 educe considei-
ably the frequency of the currents, which was excessive
in the experiment just before shown. This I may do
by inserting a self-induction coil in the path of the
discharges, or by augmenting the capacity of the
condensers. When I now pass these low-fiequency
discharges through the lamps, the exhausted lamp /
again is as bright as before, but it is noted also that the
non-exhausted lamp l x glows, though not quite as
intensely as the other. Reducing the current through
the lamps, I may bring the filament in the latter lamp
to redness, and, though the filament in the exhausted
8 4
lamp / is bright, Fig. 22c, the degree of its incandescence
is much smaller than in Fig. 22 b, when the currents were
of a much higher frequency.
In these experiments the gas acts in two opposite
ways in determining the degree of the incandescence of
the filaments; that is, by convection and by bombard¬
ment. The higher the frequency and potential of the
currents, the more important becomes the bombardment.
The convection, on the contrary, should be the smaller,
the higher the frequency. When the currents are steady
there is practically no bombardment, and convection
may, therefore, with such currents, also considerably
modify the degree of incandescence, and produce results
similar to those just before shown. Thus, if two lamps,
exactly alike, one exhausted and one not exhausted, are
connected in multiple arc or series to a direct current
machine, the filament in the non-exhausted lamp will
require a considerably greater current to be rendered
incandescent. This result is entirely due to convection,
and the effect is the more prominent the thinner the
filament. Professor Ayrton and Mr. Kilgour some time
ago published quantitative results concerning the thermal
emissivity by radiation and convection, in which the
effect of thin wires were clearly shown. This effect may
be strikingly illustrated by preparing a number of small
short glass tubes, each containing through its axis the
thinnest obtainable platinum wire. If these tubes be
highly exhausted, a number of them may be connected
in multiple arc to a direct current machine, and all of the
wires may be kept at incandescence with a smaller cur¬
rent than that required to render incandescent a single
one of the wires if the tube be not exhausted. Could
the tubes be so highly exhausted that convection would
be nil, then the relative amounts of heat given off by
convection and radiation could be determined without
--
the difficulties attending thermal quantitative measure¬
ments. If a source of electric impulses of high frequency
and very high potential is employed, a still greater num¬
ber of the tubes may be taken, and the wires rendered
incandescent by a current not capable of warming per¬
ceptibly a wire of the same size immersed in air at
ordinary pressure, and conveying the energy to all of
them.
I may here describe a result which is still more inter¬
esting, and to which I have been led by the observation
of these phenomena. I noted that small differences in
the density of the air produced a considerable difference
in the degree of incandescence of the wires, and I
thought that, since in a tube through which a luminous
discharge is passed the gas is generally not of uniform
density, a very thin wire contained in the tube might be
rendered incandescent at certain places of smaller den¬
sity of the gas, while if would remain dark at the places
of greater density, where the convection would be
greater and the bombardment less intense. Accordingly,
a tube, t, was prepared, as illustrated in Fig. 23, which
contained through the middle a very fine platinum wire,
w. The tube was exhausted to a moderate degree, and
it was found that when it was attached to the terminal of
a high frequency coil the platinum wire w would indeed
become incandescent in patches, as illustrated in Fig. 23.
Later a number of these tubes with one Or more wires
were prepared, each showing this result. The effect was
best noted when the striated discharge occurred in the
tube, but was also produced when, the striae were not
visible, showing that even then the gas in the tube was
not of uniform density. The position of the striae was
generally such that the rarefactions corresponded to the
places of incandescence or greater brightness on the wire
w. But in a few instances it was noted that the bright
rvv-vvr-r
86
spots on the wire were covered by the dense parts of the
striated discharge, as indicated by / m Fig. 23, thoug
the effect was barely perceptible. This was explained m
a plausible way by assuming that the convection was not
widely different in the dense and rarefied places, and that
the bombardment was greater on the dense places of the
Cf w
Fig. 23.—Curious Incandescence of a Wire.
striated discharge. It is, in fact, often observed in bulbs
that under certain conditions a thin wire is brought to
hio-her incandescence when the air is not too high y
rarefied. This is the case when the potential of the coi
is not high enough for the vacuum ; but the result may
be attributed to many different causes. In all cases thi
curious phenomenon of incandescence disappears when
the tube, or, rather, the wire, acquires throughout a
uniform temperature.
Disregarding, now, the modifying effect of con¬
vection, there are, then, two distinct causes which
determine the incandescence of a wire or filament with
varying currents, that is, conduction current and bom¬
bardment. With steady currents we have to deal only
with the former of these two causes, and the heating
effect is a minimum, since the resistance is least to
steady flow. When the current is a varying one, the
resistance is greater, and hence the heating effect is
increased. Thus, if the rate of change of the current
is very great, the resistance may increase to such an
extent that the filament is brought to incandescence
with inappreciable currents, and we are able to take a
short and thick block of carbon , or other material and
bring it to bright incandescence with a current incom¬
parably snqaller than that required to bring to the same
degree of incandescence an ordinary thin lamp filament
with a steady or low frequency current. This result
is important, and illustrates how rapidly our views on
these subjects are changing, and how quickly our field
of knowledge is extending. In the art of incandescent
lighting, to view this result in one aspect only, it has
been commonly considered as an essential requirement
for practical success, that the lamp filament should be
thin and of high resistance. But now we know that
the resistance to the steady flow of the filament does
not mean anything ; the filament might as well be short
and thick ; for if it be immersed in rarefied gas it will
become incandescent by the passage of- a small current.
It all depends on the frequency and potential of the
currents. We may conclude from this that it would
be of advantage, so far as the lamp is considered, to
employ high frequencies for lighting, as they allow the
use of short and thick filaments and smaller currents.
If a wire or filament be immersed in a homogeneous
medium, all the heating is due to true conduction cur¬
rent ; but if it be enclosed in an exhausted vessel, the
conditions are entirely different. Here the gas begins
to act, and the heating effect of the conduction current,
as is shown in many experiments, may be very small
compared with that of the bombardment. This is
especially the case if the circuit is not closed and the
potentials, of course, very high. Suppose a fine filament
enclosed in an exhausted vessel be connected with one
of its ends to the terminal of a high tension coil and
with its other end to a large insulated plate. Though
the circuit is not closed, the filament, as I have before
shown, is brought to incandescence. If the frequency
and potential be comparatively low, the filament is
heated by the current passing through it. If the fre¬
quency and potential, and principally the latter, be
increased, the insulated plate need be but very small, or
may be done away with entirely, still the filament will
become incandescent, practically all the heating being
then due to the bombardment. A practical way of
combining both the effects of conduction current and
bombardment is illustrated in Fig. 24, in which an ordi¬
nary lamp is shown provided with a very thin filament,
which has one of the ends of the latter connected to a
shade serving the purpose of the insulated plate, and the
other end to the terminal of a high tension source. It
should not be thought that only rarefied gas is an
important factor in the heating of a conductor by vary¬
ing currents, but gas at ordinary pressure may become
important, if the potential difference and frequency of
the currents is excessive. On this subject I have already
stated that when a conductor is fused by a stioke of
, v: ........
lightning, the current through it may be exceedingly
small, not even sufficient to heat the conductor percep¬
tibly were the latter immersed in a homogeneous
medium.
From the preceding it is elear that when a conductor
of high resistance is connected to the terminals of a
Utilizing the Heating Effect of Conduction Current
.. and Bombardment.
source of high frequency currents of high potential,
there may occur considerable dissipation of energy,
principally on the ends of the conductor, in consequence
of the action of the gas surrounding the conductor.
Owing to this, the current through a section of the
conductor at a point midway between its ends may be
9°
much smaller than through a section near the ends.
Furthermore, the current passes principally through the
outer portions of the conductor, but this effect is to be
distinguished from the skin effect as ordinal ily inter¬
preted, for the latter would or should occui also in a
continuous incompressible medium. If a great many
incandescent lamps are connected in series to a source
of such currents, the lamps at the ends may bum
brightly, whereas those in the middle may remain
entirely dark. This is due principally to bombardment,
as before stated. But even if the currents be steady,
provided the difference of potential is very great, the
lamps at the ends will burn more brightly than those in
the middle. In such case, there is no rhythmical
bombardment and the result is produced entiiely by
leakage. This leakage, or dissipation into space when
the tension is high, is considerable when incandescent
lamps are used, and . still more considerable with arcs,
for the latter act like flames. Generally, of course,
the dissipation is much smaller with, steady than with
varying currents.
I have contrived an experiment which illustrates in
an interesting manner the effect of lateral diffusion.
If a very long tube is attached to the terminal of a
high frequency coil, the luminosity is greatest near the
terminal, and falls off gradually towards the 1 emote end.
This is more marked if the tube is narrow.
A small tube, about one-half inch in- diameter and
twelve inches long, Fig. 25, has one of its ends drawn
out into a fine fibre, /, nearly three feet long. The tube
is placed in a brass socket, t, which can be screwed on
the terminal Tj of the induction coil. The discharge
passing through the tube first illuminates the bottom of
the same, which is of comparatively large section ; but
through the long glass fibre the discharge cannot pass.
But gradually the rarefied gas inside becomes warmed and
more conducting and the discharge spreads into the glass
fibre. This spreading is so slow that it may take half a
minute or more until the discharge has worked through
up to the top of the glass fibre, then presenting the
appearance of a strongly luminous thin thread. By
adjusting the potential at the terminal the light may be
Fi(t. 25.—Illustrating Lateral Diffusion.
made to travel upwards at any speed. Once, however,
the glass fibre is heated, the discharge breaks through its
entire length instantly. The interesting point to be
noted is that the higher the frequency of the currents,
or, in other words, the greater relatively the lateral dis¬
sipation, at a slower rate may the light be made to propa¬
gate through the fibre. This experiment is best per-
9 2
formed with a highly exhausted and freshly made tube.
When the tube has been used for some time the experi¬
ment often fails. It is possible that the gradual and
slow impairment of the vacuum is the cause. This slow
propagation of the discharge through a very narrow
glass tube corresponds exactly to the propagation of
heat through a bar warmed at one end. The quicker
the heat is carried away laterally the longer time it will
take for the heat to warm the remote end. When the
Fig. 26. —Incandescence of a Solid.—Illustrating Four Kinds of Light
Effects Produced by Hich Frequency Currents
of High Potential.
current of a low frequency coil is passed through the
fibre from end to end, then the lateral dissipation is
small, and the discharge instantly breaks through, almost
without exception.
After these experiments and observations, which
have shown the importance of the discontinuity or
atomic structure of the medium, and which will serve to
explain, in a measure, at least, the natuie of the four
kinds of light effects producible with these currents I
93
may now give you an illustration of these effects. Foi
the sake of interest, I may do this in a manner which to
many of you might be novel. You have seen before
that we may how convey the electric vibration to a body
by means of a single wire or conductor of any kind.
Since the human frame is conducting, I may convey
the vibration through my body.
First, as in some previous experiments, I connect
Fig. 27. —Phosphorescence.—Illustrating Four Kinds of Light Effects
Produced by High Frequency Currents of High Potential.
my body with one of the terminals of a high-tension
transformer and take in my hand an exhausted bulb
which contains a small carbon button mounted upon a
platinum wire leading to the outside of the bulb, and
the button is rendered incandescent as soon as the trans¬
former is set to work (Fig. 26). I may place a con¬
ducting shade on the bulb, which serves to intensify the
action, but it is not necessary. Nor is it required that
94
the button should be in conducting connection with the
hand through a wire leading through the glass, for
sufficient energy may be transmitted through the glass
itself by inductive action to render the button incan¬
descent.
Next, I take a highly exhausted bulb containing a
strongly phosphorescent body, above which is mounted
a small plate of aluminum on a platinum wire leading to
the outside, and the currents flowing through my body
Fig. 28.—Incandescence oe Phosphorescence of Rarefied Gas.—
Illustrating Four Kinds of Light Effects Produced
by High Frequency Currents of High Potential.
excite intense phosphoresence in the bulb, Fig. 27.
Next, again, I take in my hand a simple exhausted tube,
and in the same manner the gas inside the tube is ren¬
dered highly incandescent or phosphorescent, Fig. 28.
Finally, I may take in my hand a wire, bare or covered
with thick insulation, it is quite immaterial; the electric
vibration is so intense as to cover the wire with a lumin¬
ous film, Fig. 29.
95
A few words must now be devoted to each of these
phenomena. In the first place, I will consider the
incandescence of a button or of a solid in general, and
dwell upon some facts which apply equally to all these
phenomena. It was pointed out before that when a
thin conductor, such as a lamp filament, for instance,
is connected with one of its ends to the terminal of a
transformer of high tension, the filament is brought to
Fig. 29.—Luminosity of Gas at Ordinary Pressure.—Illustrating Four
Kinds of Light Effects Produced by High Frequency
Currents of High Potential.
incandescence partly by a conduction current and partly
by bombardment. The shorter and thicker the filament,
the more important becomes the latter; and finally,
reducing the filament to a mere button, all the heating
must practically be attributed to the bombardment. So
in the experiment before shown, the button is rendered
incandescent by the rhythmical impact of freely movable
small bodies in the bulb. These bodies may be the
molecules of the residual gas, particles of dust, or lumps
torn from the electrode ; whatever they are, it is certain
that the heating of the button is essentially connected
with the pressure of such freely movable particles, or of
atomic matter in general, in the bulb. The heating is
the more intense the greater the number of impacts per
second and the greater the energy of each impact. Yet
the button would also be heated if it were connected
to a source of a steady potential. In such a case
electricity would be carried away from the button by
the freely movable carriers or particles flying about,
and the quantity of electricity thus carried away might
be sufficient to bring the button to incandescence by
its passage through the latter. But the bombardment
could not be of great importance in such case. For
this reason, it would require a comparatively very great
supply of energy to the button to maintain it at incan¬
descence with a steady potential. The higher the
frequency of the electric impulses, the more econom¬
ically can the button be maintained at incandescence.
One of the chief reasons why this is so is, I believe,
that with impulses of very high frequency there is less
exchange of the freely movable carriers around the
electrode, and this means that in the bulb the heated
matter is better confined to the neighborhood of
the button. If a double bulb, as illustrated in Fig.
30, be made, comprising a large globe, b, and a
small one, b, each containing, as usual, a filament, /
mounted on a platinum wire, w and w lt it is found that
if the filaments //be exactly alike it requires less
energy to keep the filament in the globe b at a certain
degree of incandescence than that in the large globe b.
This is due to the confinement of the movable particles
around the button. In this case, it is also ascertained
that the filament in the small globe b is less deteriorated
97
when maintained a certain length of time at incan¬
descence. This is a necessary consequence of the fact
that the gas in the small bulb becomes strongly heated,
and, therefore, a very good conductor, and less work is
then performed on the button, since the borobaidment
becomes less intense as the conductivity of the gas
increases. In this construction, of course, the small
bulb becomes very hot, and when it reaches an elevated
temperature, the convection and radiation on the outside
increase. On another occasion I have shown bulbs in
Fig. 30.—Showing the Effects of Confining the Gas
Around the Electrode.
which this drawback was largely avoided. .In these
instances a very small bulb, containing a refractory but¬
ton, was mounted in a large globe, and the space
between the walls of both was highly exhausted. The
outer large globe remained comparatively cool in such
constructions. When the large globe was on the pump
and the vacuum between the walls maintained per¬
manent by the continuous action of the pump, the outer
globe would remain quite cold, while the button in the
small bulb was kept at incandescence. But when the
seal was made, and the button in the small bulb main¬
tained incandescent some length of time, the large
globe, too, would become warmed. From this I con¬
jecture that if vacuous space (as Prof. Dewar finds) cannot
convey heat, it is so merely in virtue of our rapid
motion through space, or, generally speaking, by the
motion of the medium relatively to us, for a permanent
condition could not be maintained without the medium
being constantly renewed. A vacuum cannot, according
Fig. 81.—Showing the Inefficiency of a Metal Screen.
to all evidence, be permanently maintained around a hot
body.
In these constructions, before mentioned, the small
bulb inside would, at least in the first stages, prevent all
bombardment against the outer, large, globe. It
occurred to me then to ascertain how a metal sieve
would behave in this respect, and several bulbs, as illus¬
trated in Fig. 31, were prepared for this purpose. In
a globe b, was mounted a thin filament (or button), f,
upon a platinum wire, w, passing through a glass stem
99
and leading to the outside of the globe. The filament
f was. surrounded by a metal sieve, r. It was found in
experiments with such bulbs that a sieve with wide
meshes apparently did not in the slightest affect the
bombardment against the globe, b. When the vacuum
was high the shadow of the sieve was clearly projected
against the globe, and the latter would get hot in a short
while. In some bulbs the sieve, s, was connected to a
platinum wire sealed in the glass. W T hen this wire was
connected to the other terminal of the induction coil
(the e. M. f. being kept low, in this case), or to an insu¬
lated plate, the bombardment against the outer globe, b,
was diminished. By taking a sieve with fine meshes the
bombardment against the globe, b , was always diminished;
but, even then, if the exhaustion was carried very far, and
when the potential of the transformer was very high, the
globe, b, would be bombarded and heated quickly, though
, no shadow of the sieve was visible, owing to the small¬
ness of the meshes. But a glass tube or other con¬
tinuous body mounted so as to surround the filament, did
entirely cut off the bombardment, and for a while the
outer globe, b, would remain perfectly cold. Of course,
when the glass tube was sufficiently heated, the bom¬
bardment against the outer globe could be noted at
once. The experiments with these bulbs seemed to show
that the speeds of the projected molecules or particles
must be considerable (though quite insignificant when
compared with that of light), otherwise it would, be
difficult to understand how they could traverse a fine
metal sieve without being affected, unless it were found
that such small particles or atoms cannot be acted upon
directly at measurable distances. In regard to the speed
of the projected atoms, Lord Kelvin has recently
estimated it at about one kilometre a second, or there¬
abouts, in an ordinary Crookes bulb. As the potentials
IOO
obtainable with a disruptive discharge coil are much
higher than with ordinary coils, the speeds must, of
course, be much greater when the bulbs are lighted
from such a coil. Assuming the speed to be as high as
five kilometres and uniform through the whole trajec¬
tory, as it should be in a very highly exhausted vessel,
then if the alternate electrifications of the electrode
would be of a frequency of five million, the greatest dis¬
tance a particle could get away from the electiode would
be one millimetre, and if it could be acted upon directly
at that distance, the exchange of electrode matter or of
the atoms would be very slow, and there would be prac¬
tically no bombardment against the bulb. This, at least,
should be so, if the action of an electrode upon the
atoms of the residual gas would be such as upon electri¬
fied bodies which we can perceive. A hot body enclosed
in an exhausted bulb produces always atomatic bom¬
bardment; but a hot body has no definite rhythm, for its
molecules perform vibrations of all kinds.
If a bulb containing a button or filament be
exhausted as high as is possible with the greatest care
and by the use of the best artifices, it is often observed
that the discharge cannot, at first, break through , but
after some time, probably in consequence of some
changes within the bulb, the discharge finally passes
through and the button is rendered incandescent. In
fact, it appears that the higher the degree of exhaustion,
the easier is the incandescence produced. There seem
to be no other causes to which the incandescence might
be attributed in such case, except to the bombardment
or similar action of the residual gas, or of paiticles of
matter in general. But if the bulb be exhausted with
the greatest care, can. these play an important part?
Assume the vacuum in the bulb to be tolerably peifect,
the great interest then centres in the question : Is the
IOI
medium which pervades all space continuous or atomic ?
If atomic, then the heating of a conducting button or
-filament in an exhausted vessel might be due largely to
ether bombardment, and then the heating of a conductor
in general through which currents of high frequency 01
high potential are passed must be modified by the
behavior of such medium; then, also, the skin effect, the
apparent increase of the ohmic resistance, etc., admit,
partially, at least, of a different explanation.
It is certainly more in accordance with many
phenomena observed with high frequency currents to
hold that all space is pervaded with free atoms, rather
than to assume that it is. devoid of these, and dark and
cold, for so it must be, if filled with a continuous
medium, since in such there can be neither heat nor light.
Is, then, energy transmitted by independent carriers or
by the vibration of a continuous medium? This im¬
portant question is by no means as yet positively
answered. But most of the effects which are here
considered, especially the light effects, incandescence or
phosphorescence, involve the presence of free, atoms, and
would be impossible without these.
In regard to the incandescence of a refractory button
(or filament) in an exhausted receiver, which has been one
of the subjects of this investigation, the chief experiences,
which may serve as a guide in constructing such bulbs,
may be summed up as follows: i. The button should be
as small as possible, spherical, of a smooth or polished
surface and of refractory material, which withstands
evaporation best. 2. The support of the button should
be very thin and screened by an aluminum and mica
sheet, as I have described on another occasion. 3. The
exhaustion of the bulb should be as high as possible.
4. The frequency of the currents should be as high as
practicable. 5. The currents should be of a harmonic
102
rise and fall, without sudden interruptions. 6. The heat
should be confined to the button by enclosing the same
in a small bulb, or otherwise, 7. The space between the
walls of the small bulb and the outer globe should be
highly exhausted. _
Most of the considerations just considered which
apply to the incandescence of a solid, may likewise be
applied to phosphorescence. Indeed, in. an exhausted
vessel the phosphorescence is, as a rule, primarily excited
by the powerful beating of the electrode stream of atoms
against the phosphorescent body. Even m many cases
where there is no evidence of such a bombardment, I
think that phosphorescence is excited by violent impacts
of atoms which are not necessarily thrown off from the
electrode, but are acted upon from the same inductively,
through the medium or through chains of other atoms.
That mechanical shocks play an important part in excit-
incr phosphorescence in a bulb, may be seen from the
following experiment: If a bulb, constructed as that
illustrated in Fig. 10, be taken, and exhausted with the
greatest care so that the discharge cannot pass, the fila¬
ment,/, acts by electrostatic induction upon the tube,
4 and the latter is set in vibration. If the tube,
o, be rather wide, about an inch or so, the filament may
be so powerfully vibrated that whenever it hits the glass
tube it excites phosphorescence. But the phosphores¬
cence ceases when the filament comes to rest. The
vibration can be arrested and again started by vaiying
the frequency of the currents ; namely, the filament has
its own period of vibration, and if the frequency of the
currents is such that there is resonance, it is set easily
vibrating, though the potential of the currents be small
I have often observed that the filament in the bulb is
destroyed by such mechanical resonance. The filament
vibrates, as a rule, so rapidly that it cannot be seen, and
103
the experimenter may at first be mystified. When such
an experiment as the one described is carefully per¬
formed, the potential of the currents need be extremely
small, and for this reason I infer that the phosphores¬
cence is then due to the mechanical shock of the filament
against the glass, just as it is produced by striking a loaf
of sugar with a knife. The mechanical shock produced
by the projected atoms is easily noted when a bulb con¬
taining a button is grasped In the hand and the current
turned on suddenly. I believe that a bulb could be
shattered by observing the conditions of resonance.
In the experiment before cited it is, of course, open
to say that the glass tube, upon coming in contract with
the filament, retains a charge of a certain sign upon the
point of contact. If, now, the filament again touches
the glass at the same point while it is oppositely charged,
the charges equalize under evolution of light. But
nothing of importance would be gained by such an
explanation. ' It is unquestionable that the initial charges
given to the atoms or to the glass play some part in
exciting phosphorescence. So, for instance, if a phos¬
phorescent bulb be. first excited by a high frequency coil
by connecting it to one of the terminals of the latter, and
the degree of luminosity noted; and then the, bulb be
highly charged from a Holtz machine by attaching it
preferably to the positive terminal of the machine, it is
found that when the bulb is again connected to the
terminal of the high frequency coil, the phosphorescence
is far more intense. On another occasion, I have con¬
sidered the possibility of some phosphorescent phenomena
in bulbs being produced by the incandescence of an
infinitesimal layer on the surface of the phosphorescent
body. Certainly, the impacts of the atoms are powerful
enough to produce intense incandescence by the
collisions, since they bring quickly to a high temperature
4
104
a body of considerable bulk. If any such effect: exists,
mental discharges, say, 253 P j t
to produce a continuous impression upon tl > •
“fact that such a coil excites phosphorescence under
a . j + xii rjeorees of exhaustion, and
most any condition and at all degiees
I have observed effects which appear to be due P
phorescence even at ordinary pressures of the atmosph^
SesTeT to emit prosphorescent
are brought to a certain temperature Conductor on
the contrary, do not possess th* quatoy "“ Ahem.
certain elevated temperature prece ^ bo)bs
ThiS 'd P d e wThTratte large carbon electrode (say a
Thlm of 2 millimetres Siameter). If the current
is turned on after a few seconds, a snow white hi
“Tar iTls'Tl'oted londulting”bodies,
“asTyTug m do with phosphorescence, excited by
to localize and increase the heating effect at the point of
impact, are almost invariably the most favorable for the
production of phosphorescence. So, if the electrode be
very small, which is equivalent to saying, m general, that
the electric density is great; if the potential be high,
and if the gas be highly rarefied—all of which things
imply high speed of the projected atoms or matter, and,
consequently, violent impacts—the phosphorescence is
very intense. If a bulb, provided with a large and small
electrode, be attached to the terminal of an induction
coil the small electrode excites phosphorescence, while
the large one may not do so because of the smaller elec¬
tric density, and hence smaller speed of the atoms. A
bulb provided with a large electrode may be grasped
with the hand while the electrode is connected to the
terminal of the coil and it may not phosphoresce; but
if, instead of grasping the bulb with the hand, the same
be touched with a pointed wire, the phosphorescence at
once spreads through the bulb, because of the great
density at the point of contact. With low frequencies
it seems that gases of great atomic weight excite more
intense phosphorescence than those of smaller weight,
as, for instance, hydrogen. With high frequencies the
observations are not sufficiently reliable to draw a con¬
clusion. Oxygen, as is well known, produces exception¬
ally strong effects, which may be in part due to chemical
action. A bulb with hydrogen residue seems to be most
easily excited. Electrodes which are most easily deteri¬
orated produce more intense phosphorescence m bulbs;
but the condition is not permanent, because of the impair¬
ing of the vacuum and the deposition of the electrode
matter upon the phosphorescent surfaces. Some liqui s,
as oils, for instance, produce magnificent effects of phos¬
phorescence (or fluorescence?), but they last only a few
seconds. So if a bulb have a trace of oil on the wails,
io6
and the current is turned on, the phosphorescence only
persists for a few moments, until the oil is earned away.
Of all bodies so far tried, sulphide of zinc seems to be
the most susceptible to phosphorescence Some samples
obtained through the kindness of Prof Henry in P .
were employed in many of these bulbs. One of the
defects of this sulphide is that it loses its qtiali y
emitting light when brought to a temperature which is
by no means high. It can, therefore, be used only for
feeble intensities. An observation which mightReserve
notice is that when violently bombarded fiom
aluminum electrode it assumes a black color,. but, si
gularly enough, it returns to the original condition when
^ "The mos n t important fact arrived at in pursuing
investigations in this direction is, that m all cases it is
necessary, in order to excite phosphorescence with a
y + pnrrcrv to observe certain condi-
minimum amount of eneigy, to ooseiv
tions- namely, there is always, no matter what th
frequency of the currents, degree of exhaustion and
character of the bodies in the bulb, a certain po ent.a
(assuming the bulb excited from one terminal) or
potential difference (assuming the bulb to be excited
with both terminals) which produces the most economi¬
cal result If the potential, be increased, considerable
energy may be wasted without producing any more
liaht and if it be diminished, then, again, the light pro¬
duction is not so economical. The exact condition
under which the best result is obtained seems to depend
on many things of a different nature, and it is to be yet
investigated by other experimenters ; but it will certainly
have to be observed when such phosphorescent bulbs are
operated, if the best results are to be attained. _
Coming now to the most interesting of these phe
nomena, the incandescence or phosphorescence of gases
107
at low pressure or at the ordinary pressure of the atmos¬
phere, we must seek the explanation of these phenomena
in the same primary causes; that is, in shocks or impacts
of the atoms. Just as molecules or atoms beating upon
a solid body excite phosphorescence in the same, 01
render it incandescent, so when colliding among them¬
selves they produce similar phenomena. But this is a
very insufficient explanation, and concerns only the ciude
mechanism. Light is produced by vibrations, which go
on at a rate almost inconceivable. If we compute from
the energy contained in the form of known radiations m
a definite space the force which is necessary to set up
such rapid vibrations, we find that though the densi y
of the ether be incomparably smaller than that of any¬
body we know, even hydrogen, the force is something
surpassing comprehension. What is this force which m
mechanical measure, may amount to thousands of tons
per square inch? It is electrostatic force m the light of
modern views. It is impossible to conceive how a body
of measurable dimensions could be charged to so high a
potential that the force would be sufficient to pioduce
these vibrations. Long before any such charge could be
imparted to the body it would be shattered into atoms.
The sun emits light and heat, and so does an ordinary
flame or incandescent filament; but m neither of these
can the force be accounted for if it be assumed that it
associated with the body as a whole. Only ^ one way
may we account for it, namely, by identifying it with the
atom An atom is so small that if it be charged-by
coming in contact with an electrified body, and the
charge be assumed to follow the same law as 111 the case
of bodies of measurable dimensions, it must retain a
quantity of electricity which is fully capable of accoun -
ing for these forces and tremendous rates of vibiation.
ioS
But the atom behaves singularly in this respect; it always
takes the same “ charge.”
It is very likely that resonant vibration plays a most
important part in all manifestations of energy in natuie.
Throughout space all matter is vibrating, and all rates of
vibration are represented, from the lowest musical note
to the highest pitch of the chemical rays; hence an atom,
or complex of atoms, no matter what its period, must
find a vibration with which it is in resonance. When
we consider the enormous rapidity of the light vibra¬
tions, we realize the impossibility of producing such
vibrations directly with any apparatus of measurable
dimensions, and we are driven to the only possible
means of attaining the object of setting up waves of
light by electrical means and economically ; that is, to
affect the molecules or atoms of a gas, to cause them to
collide and vibrate. We then must ask ourselves : How
. can free molecules or atoms be affected ?
It is a fact that they can be affected by electrostatic
force, as is apparent in many of these experiments. By
varying the electrostatic force we can agitate the atoms, e
and cause them to collide under evolution of heat and
light. It is not demonstrated beyond boubt that we can
affect them otherwise. If a luminous discharge is pro¬
duced in a closed exhausted tube, do the atoms arrange
themselves in obedience to any other but to electrostatic
force acting in straight lines from atom to atom ? Only
recently I investigated the mutual action between two
circuits with extreme rates of vibration. When a
battery of a few jars (c c c c, Fig. 32) is discharged
through a primary, p, of low resistance (the connections
being as illustrated in Figs. 19 a, 19b, and 19^), and the
frequency of vibration be many million, there are great
differences of potential between points on the primary
not more than a few inches apart. These differences may
IO9
be 10,000 volts per inch, if not more, taking the max¬
imum value of the electromotive force. The secondaiy, s,
is therefore acted upon by electrostatic induction, which is,
in such extreme cases, of much greater impoitance than
the electro-dynamic. To such sudden impulses the
primary, as well as the secondary, are poor conductois,
and therefore great differences of potential may be pro¬
duced by electrostatic induction between adjacent points
on the secondary. Then sparks may jump between the
wires and streamers become visible in the dark, if the
^dd' 1
Fy.32
Fig. 32._Electrostatic Action Between Primary and Secondary, with
Extremely High Frequencies.
light of the discharge through the spark gap d d be
carefully excluded. If, now, we substitute a closed
vacuum tube for the metallic secondary r, the differences
of potential produced in the tube by electrostatic induc¬
tion from the primary are fully sufficient to excite
portions of it; but as the points of certain differences
of potential on the primary are not fixed, but are gener¬
ally constantly changing in position, a luminous band
is produced in the tube, apparently not touching the
glass, as it should if the points of maximum and mini-
1
t
f
I
i‘
I'
I
I
S'
;
{
HO
mum differences of potential were fixed on the primary.
I do not exclude the possibility of such a tube being
excited only by electro-dynamic induction, for very able
physicists hold this view ; but, in my opinion, there is as
yet no positive proof given that atoms of a gas in a
closed tube may arrange themselves in chains under the
action of an electromotive impulse produced by electro¬
dynamic induction in the tube. I have been unable
so far to produce stria: in a tube, however long, and
at whatever degree of exhaustion ; that is, strise at right
angles to the supposed direction of the discharge or the
axis of the tube; but I have distinctly observed in a
large bulb, in which a wide luminous band was pro¬
duced by passing a discharge of a battery through a
wire surrounding the bulb, a circle of feeble luminosity
between two luminous bands, one of which was more
intense than the other. Furthermore, with my present
experience, I do not think that such a gas discharge in a
closed tube can vibrate; that is, vibrate as a whole. I
am convinced that no discharge through a gas can
vibrate. The atoms of a gas behave very curiously in
respect to sudden electric impulses. The gas does not
seem to possess any appreciable inertia to such impulses;
for it is a fact, that the higher the frequency of the
impulses, with the greater freedom does the discharge
pass through the gas. If the gas possesses no inertia,
then it cannot vibrate, for some inertia is necessary for
the free vibration. I conclude from this that if a light¬
ning discharge occurs between two clouds, there can be
no oscillation, such as would be expected, considering the
capacity of the clouds. But if the lightning discharge
strike the earth, there is always vibration—in the earth,
but not in the cloud. In a gas discharge each atom
vibrates at its own rate, but there is no vibration of the
conducting gaseous mass as a whole. This is an import-
xii
ant consideration in the great problem of producing
light economically, for it teaches us that to reach this
result we must use impulses of very high frequency and
necessarily also of high potential. It is a fact that
oxygen produces a more intense light in a tube. It is
because oxygen atoms possess some inertia and the vibra¬
tion does not die out instantly? But then nitrogen should
be as good as, and chlorine and vapors of many other
bodies much better than, oxygen, unless the magnetic
properties of the latter enter prominently into play.
Or is the process in the tube of an electrolytic nature ?
Many observations certainly speak for it, the most
important being, that matter is always carried away
from the electrodes and the vacuum in a bulb cannot be
permanently maintained. If such process takes place
in reality, then, again, must we take refuge to high
frequencies, for with such, electrolytic action should be
reduced to a minimum, if not rendered entirely impos¬
sible. It is an undeniable fact that with very high
frequencies, provided the impulses .be of a haimonic
nature, like those obtained from an alternator, there is
less deterioration and the vacua are more permanent.
With disruptive discharge coils there are sudden rises of
potential and the vacua are more quickly impaired, for
the electrodes are deteriorated in a very short time. It
was. observed in some large tubes, which were provided
with heavy carbon blocks b b 1( connected to platinum
wires w (as illustrated in Fig. 33 )> an d which weie
employed in experiments with the disruptive discharge
instead of the ordinary air gap, that the carbon particles,
under the action of the powerful magnetic field in which
the tube was placed, were deposited in regular fine lines
in the middle of the tube, as illustrated. These lines
were attributed to the deflection or distortion of the
discharge by the magnetic field; but why the deposit
11 2
•. .' •
)
occurred principally where the field was most intense did
not appear quite clear. A fact of interest, likewise
noted, was that the presence of a strong magnetic field
increases the deterioration of the electrodes, probably by
reason of the rapid interruptions it produces, whereby
there is actually a higher electromotive force maintained
between the electrodes.
Much would remain to be said about the luminous
effects produced in gases at low or ordinary pressures.
With the present experiences before us we cannot say
that the essential nature of these charming phenomena
is sufficiently known. But investigations in this direc-
< £ € EE
r
//r/.-j-J
Fig. 33.—Carbon Deposit in Tube in a Magnetic Field.
'■I
k ■
tion are being pushed with exceptional ardor. Every
line of scientific pursuit has its fascinations; but electrical
investigation appears to possess a peculiar attraction, for
there is no experiment or observation of any kind in the
domain of this wonderful science which would not
forcibly appeal to us. Yet to me it seems that of all
the many marvelous things we observe, a vacuum tube,
excited by an electric impulse from a distance source,
bursting forth out of the darkness and illuminating the
room with its beautiful light, is as lovely a phenomenon
as can greet our eyes. More interesting still it appears
when, reducing, the fundamental discharges across the
.' i:
113
gap to a very small number, and waving the tube about,
we produce all kinds of designs in luminous lines. So,
by way of amusement, I take a straight long tube, or a
square one, or a square attached to a straight tube, and
by whirling them about in the hand, I imitate the spokes
Fig. 31— Spoke Wheel, Drum Winding, Alternate Motor Winding,
Ring Winding—Some of the Designs Produced by
Intermittent Discharges.
%
of a wheel, a Gramme winding, a drum winding, an
alternate current motor winding, etc. (Fig. 34).. Viewed
from a distance the effect is weak and much of its beauty
is lost; but being near or holding the tube in the hand
one cannot resist its charm'.
/• ' v ■ < m ; •
In presenting these insignificant results I have not
attempted to arrange and co-ordinate them as would be
proper in a strictly scientific investigation, in which every
succeeding result should be a logical sequence of the
preceding, so that it might be guessed in advance by
the. careful reader or attentive listener. I have preferred
to concentrate my energies chiefly upon advancing novel
facts or ideas which might serve as suggestions to others,
and this may serve as an excuse for the lack of harmony.
The explanations of the phenomena have been’ given in
good faith and in the spirit of a student prepared to find
that they admit of a better interpretation. There can be
no great harm in a student taking an erroneous view,
but when great minds'err, the world must dearly pay
for their mistakes.
Oct. 24, 1967
N. J. TRBOJEVICH
NUCLEAR REACTOR
3,349,002
Filed March 28, 1958
FIG.2.
FIG.7.
/
LIQUID
GAS
VALVE
ROTARY
REACTOR
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Q
J=±
-
POWER
VOLUME
FIG.6.
INVENT OR.
NIKOLA J. TRBOJEVICH
BY
ATTORNEYS
A NEW THEORY ON ETHER AND MASS-ENERGY RELATIONS
By Nikola J. Trbojevich (Nicholas J. Terbo) (1886-1973), September 24, 1959
To: Dr. James Corum and Dr. Jasmina Vujic: 30 October 2000
From: William H. Terbo
Enclosed is a copy of my father’s space-time physics theory that he developed over forty
years ago. I had set it aside several months ago to send to Jim, he being one of the few
people I know who has both the knowledge of the field and the (hoped for) willingness to
review and comment on what is to me is a fairly esoteric subject. When I mentioned the
work to Jasmina during my October 14-17 visit to UC Berkeley to speak to her Tesla
history course, she asked for a copy for review. It was the spark I needed to get this
effort moving.
I’ve reread the work today. The words are easy, but the concepts aren’t so easy for me so
far removed from my physics education. (It put me in mind of reading Stephen
Hawking’s “A Brief History Of Time.” It took me almost two transcontinental air trips to
momentarily absorb his less than 200 pages of similar material.) A lot of credit must go
to my college friend and tournament bridge partner, the late Burt Randolph, who spent
many weeks with my father acting as a “devil’s advocate” to force dad to defend his
theory, and then managing the organization of the work into its present readable form.
(Burt got his doctorate in Mechanical Engineering at Purdue while I was getting my
bachelor’s.)
This theory is a pretty substantial departure for my father. Most of his previous work was
in the invention of various gears, most notably the basic patent on the Hypoid gear in
1923. It was the first gear design using the application of advanced mathematics. (Tesla
called my dad “my nephew, the mathematician.”) This theory was pretty aggressive
considering the year, 1959, and my father’s age, 73. Research was complicated as the
publishing of much new nuclear science technology was restricted for security reasons,
so more credit is due for dad’s creativity. I know he spent at least seven or eight years
developing his knowledge in the field.
I would appreciate a couple of very brief comments done at your leisure. I really have
only two questions that need resolution for my satisfaction. First, was my dad really on
to something important, or was it too much of a leap? Second, is the theory good but
outdated, or overtaken by current science?
You may distribute this material to your academic colleagues if you wish.
Thanks,
Bill
WHT/njtkl
FOREWORD
This paper deals with the structure of the universe, the nature of space and
time and the mass-energy relations.
The subject matter is of the kind which is not readily approachable either by
laboratory experiments or mathematics. It is the product of free invention.
Nevertheless, the paper contains several ideas relating to nuclear and thermo
nuclear energies, the theories of quanta and relativity, which may have important
practical consequences.
The writer spent a lifetime as a free-lance engineer and inventor. It is
another object of this paper to demonstrate that the art of invention, when pursued
purposively, diligently and professionally, may easily become a mofet valuable
tool iq scientific research.
I wish to express my particular thanks to Dr. B. W. Randolph who has read
the firpt two drafts of this paper and has offered a number of valuable suggestions
in this connection.
S, l^cOiSvmA
September 24, 1959
Santa Monica, Calif.
A NEW THEORY ON ETHER AND MASS-ENERGY RELATIONS
(Time and space are discontinuous and consist
of indivisible quanta)
Contents
1„ Discontinuity everywhere
2. There must be an ether
3. The structure of ether
4. Calculation of space and time quanta
5. The theory of unit photons
6. Cavity radiation and steady states
7. The subgravitational masses
8. The mechanics of the universe
9. Remarks on the theory of light
10. On the origin of electric charges
11. On nuclear energy
12. A hypothesis on the stability of atoms
13. The basis for a unified theory
14. Remarks on the theory of relativity
15. Kinetic energy and the relativistic mass increase
16. On gravitation and inertia
17. Causality and determinism
18. On fields
19. On thermonuclear energy
The specifications of ether
Page
1
2
4
6
10
14
17
19
21
23
25
28
31
33
36
37
39
41
42
20.
44
-1 -
l. Discontinuity everywhere
It is well known that matter, energy, electric charges and actions are all
discontinuous and appear as quanta, i e e„, in small and indivisible units or
bundles,,
It is the object of this paper to show that the quantum principle extends
throughout the world and embraces space, time, inertia, gravitation and every-
thing else.
The great German philosopher Kant wrote 200 years ago: "A body consists
of particles, a motion consists of motions, space consists of spaces and time
consists of n}.oments. All physical processes are staccato, " This uncanny
prediction is held here to be true, as it will be presently shown.
The so-called space will hereinafter be referred to by the term "ether. "
2. There Must be an Ether
Ever since Newton^, through Maxwell^ Hertz, Lorentz and Einstein, there was
a profpund belief among scientists that action at a distance among material particles
was utterly impossible and what is sometimes called the "empty space", must
possess some sort of metric or structure which enables the particles to cooperate
by means of fields.
Einstein called ether "a four-dimensional space-time continuum", but
occasionally he would use the word ether , as in this quotation: "Space without
ether is unthinkable for in such a space there would be no propagation of light".
The difficulty in defining of what ether is, or should be, is found in the fact
that ether must do so many different things at the same time. It is non-material
and yet it interacts with matter. It possesses no inertia and is not subject to
gravitation and yet, it is inextricably linked with those two phenomena, and so on.
Michelson-Morley experiments have definitely shown that there was no ether
drag. Light, which was supposed at that time to be an entirely ethereal phenomenon
showed a most baffling discrepancy in that its velocity was constant whether it was
measured in the direction of earth 8 s motion or against it. This led to the well known
theory of relativity about which Dr. Soddy once wrote to the effect "Einstein's
principle of mass and energy equivalence is a profound truth and a fundamental law
of nature which, however, was derived by faulty logic. "
In this discussion we shall attempt to revise and amend radically the theories
of light and relativity.
D'Abro said once that in Einstein the old-fashioned ether was "reinstated in
the guise of a metrical field of the space-time". He further thought that Einstein s
geodesic lines must be "a rarified form of matter or a reality of a category
different fropn matter".
Newton believed in absolute space and time, but he did not believe that what
he called the "brute masses" could possibly act one upon the other without an
intervening medium. Heitler thought that the discontinuous happenings and jumps
in atoms "might be caused by some outside influence".
- 3 -
Born said: "Ether must be something very different from ordinary terres¬
trial substances".
De Bothezat conjectured: "maybe ether is just an even mesh of threadlike
subelectrons".
Weyl said: "The centrifugal and other inertial forces take their origin from
the metrical structure of the world".
Dantzig said: "Gravitation is not affected by the velocities of bodies". We
now conclude: Ether must contain large amounts of energy and/or matter of a
sub - gravitational and sub-inertial character which vibrates on the principle of
standing waves such as are found in cav ity or black body radiation.
The above statement implies that both inertia and gravitation are quantized,
i„ e» , are not infinitely divisible. Both possess a lower limit, just like electric
charges or quanta of action, below which they cannot go. This is the novel aspect
of this theory and it will be further discussed in this paper.
- 4 -
3, The Structure of Ether
The struc tures of matter and ether must be complementary of each other .
Both must consist of two congruous networks of equispaced discontinuities. It
is only in this manner conceivable how it is possible for bodies to move through
ether without a drag.
Fpom this it follows that time and space must also be discontinuous and must
consist of quanta.
These statements when proved, may become factors of considerable importance
not only in physics but also in engineering. Once we can establish a one-to-one
correspondence between the structures of ether and matter, we may determine the
structure of ether from the structure of matter or conversely. Obviously this
"double-check" should be useful in many applications, as for instance in compre¬
hending the structures of various nuclei. The principle should also make it
possible to verify this theory by laboratory experiments.
It is interesting to note that the structure of ether may be determined by
calculation only. It is possible to do so, once the principle of complementarity
between space and matter has been accepted.
Another interesting application of the principle of complementarity is that
it explains the universal "tremor", as Dirac called it, which pervades all the
matter in the universe.
As is well known, all particles of matter move, rotate or vibrate forever
without any consumption of energy and without any visible cause.
This is due to the vibration of ether. According to this theory ether is a
field of standing and monochromatic waves uniformly extending throughout the
universe.
The matter particles act as impurities imbedded in the pristine cleanliness
of ether and are floating around in its meshes in very much the same manner as
the colored pollen grains move about in water in the Brownian effect.
- 5 -
Ether particularly resembles the cavity radiation in Kirchhoff's black body
furnace in all respects except that the radiation field is of an incomparably higher
frequency and is strictly monochromatic.
Dirac's "tremor" was noticed by many other physicists.
Gamow called it "the restless universe".
De Broglie said once: "the question may be asked whether our customary ideas
of time and space which we believe to be a perfectly continuous framework, were
genuinely valid".
Zeno thought that time was discontinuous just like matter and was composed
of "moments". Born referred to it as the "inexplicable stability of atoms".
Jeans said "either causality or continuity must be renounced". He further
said: "Bohr jumps prove that there is no continuity in space and time",
F. A. Lindemann stated that "if we postulate that the space and time are not
continuous, the whole quantum theory follows naturally as a consequence". Soddy
said: "zero point energy proves that the state of rest in nature is unthinkable."
Heisenberg and other scientists at one time seriously considered the discontinuity
of space and time. The units or quanta of space and time were named "hodon" and
"chronon", respectively.
We shall now proceed with the calculation of the space and time quanta.
. 6 -
4, Calculation of the Space and Time Quanta
It was stated in previous paragraphs that the principle of complementarity
will enable us to determine the structure of ether by calculation only.
According to this theory, the meshes of ether must correspond to the meshes
of matter exactly.
From this it follows that nature cannot build a particle larger in diameter
than a single mesh or cubicle of space. This defines the diameter of the space
quantum d.
Mo s ha raff a once suggested that matter may be nothing but "congealed radiation 1
In the light of this theory, Mosharaffa's statement is true. This gives us an
interesting view on the possible origin of the universe. As the Bible says: "fiat
lux", ether was the first and matter the second, to appear on the scene of creation.
Thus, the universe may be conceived as being a large mass of vibrating
photon gas, which is energy, in which a very small part consists of impurities,
which is matter, resulting from the partial condensation of that gas. According
to an estimate made by Einstein and others, the solid matter in the vast ocean of
r 30 ,
ether, i. e. , the photon gas, amounts to only about one part in 10
It will be noted that while this theory is completely strange to all our percep¬
tions yet, mathematically it is ridiculously simple.
This will come as a welcome relief to many of us who cannot find sufficient
£ 13^0 to enthuse about tensors, Christoffel. and the Italian calculus.
It is now possible greatly to simplify such abstruse doctrines as quantum
mechanics, the theory of relativity, the relativistic mass increase, the dual
aspect of light and many other difficult problems.
The explanation is that the theory is self-complete and explains the universe
as if the universe were only a very large machine having a limited number of
operations, all of which are strange, but not too complicated when compared with
the tremendous complexity in toto.
- 7 -
As already stated, the wavelength of ether is equal to d which is also the
diameter of the largest solid particle which nature can build.
It is assumed that the said largest particles are the neutron and proton,
or, more correctly, the solid cores of the said nucleons.
A neutron or a proton then consists of a solid core which is assumedly
spinning and is therefore surrounded by a photonic fuzz , probably a modification
of the de Brpglie wave. The mass of this fuzz is very small a.nd may be considered
as negligible in this calculation.
Hence the mass of the said solid core of a nucleon is taken to be very nearly
equal to the atomic mass unit:
-24
m = 1.66 x 10 gram
The velocity of light c = 3x10 cm/sec
27
The Planck constant h= 6. 6 x 10 ergsec
Let N denote the frequency of ether, then
will be the time quantum.
1 )
velocity of light = 2^^ =
Note than both quanta may be obtained entirely by calculation, i. e. , without
any recourse to experiments or laboratory measurement.
All that is required is to know the three great constants of nature namely,
the velocity of light c, the quantum of action h, and the atomic mass unit m.
The above three constants comprise among them the entire structure of the
i
universe.
The calculation may now proceed along three different formulas, respectively
belonging to Planck - Einstein, de Broglie and Bertrand Russel.
All three of these formulas express the same thing, that is, the equivalence
of mass and energy and they can be deduced one from another.
- 8 -
2
Einstein - Planck: me = h N
De Broglie: d = ™
° me
Russel: Energy x time of one vibration = action
2 )
3)
4)
Regarding the above Russel formula, it may be pointed out that Russel was
the first, we believe, who pointed out that in the theory of quanta it is the acti on
and not the energy of radiation which is of prime importance. Said Lord Russel:
"Perhaps a theory giving more prominence to action may be possible and may
facilitate a simpler statement of the quantum principle". In this theory, we found
the above suggestion very productive as it fits into this scheme perfectly.
The maximum motoentum which nature can produce in a single particle is the
product of the mass of the said heaviest particle and the maximum velocity, the
velocity of light.
2
In Russel's formula, equation (4), the energy may be denoted with E = me
and the time of one vibration is the time quantum -jL, In de Broglie's equation (3)
the minimum wave length is the space quantum d. Hence, we write:
E x
from which N
(1,66 x
10° 24 ) (9 x 10 20 )
6.6 x 10" 27
2. 3 x 10
5)
23
per sec
Hence, the maximum frequency (or action) which nature can produce and which
is numerically equal to the frequency and also the action of ether is:
N = 2. 3 x 10
23
per sec
6 )
T(ie time quantum is the reciprocal of frequency:
1
TT
4. 4 x 10~ 24 sec
The space quantum d is equal to:
7)
TT
3 x. 10 10 x 4.4 x 10' 24 = 1.32 x 10~ 13 cm 8)
Noting that the space quantum d is also the diameter of the largest solid
particle, the maximum specific gravity or density of the primordial matter is
Max, density ^ = 1,38 x 10 33 gram/cm 3 9)
The results so far obtained are:
space quantum
d =
1.32 x 10" 13 C m
time quantum
1
TT~
4,4 x 10 ^ sec
max, frequency
N =
23
2.3 x 10 per sec
max, density
r-
1.38 x 10 15 gram/cm 3
.
- 10 -
5, The Theory of Unit Photons
The theory of unit photons is probably the most speculative and controversial
part of this paper. However, this concept explains so many things which could not
be explained before that we believe the idea is fundamentally correct,
Einstein wrote once: "Matter is where the concentration of energy is great and
field is where the concentration is small".
We already mentioned Mosharaffa who suggested that "matter is nothing but
congealed radiation", A Soviet scientist, J. Frenkel, voiced a similar opinion when
he wrote: "Matter is a collection of interpenetrating dynamical fields, electro-
magn.etic and nuclear, with material particles and bodies forming nodal points".
How can we explain the true nature of a field? It is to be noted that ether, as
herein defined, is also a field. Fields are not subject to gravity, they possess no
inertia and yet, they are capable of interacting with matter. How can that be?
The answer is:
There are entities in nature which contain sub-gravitational and sub-in ertial
matter. Fields are such entities.
When Einstein analyzed the photoelectric effect, he conceived the idea and the
word "photon".
We usually speak of energy of the light quanta. However, it was Russel,
previously quoted, who first pointed out that in radiation it is the action and not
the energy which is of prime significance. Action is a product of energy and time
ih which time represents the duration of a single impulse. Obviously then, the
shorter the pulse, the higher the quality of action during a given time interval.
In this sense, action replaces the concept of temperature in radiation and leads
to the application of the thermodynamical law of entropy in radiation.
In the preceding paragraphs, we postulated the geometrical structure of ether.
It appears that both space and time are atomicized. Space is divided into a network,
of small cubes, or possibly spheres, each having the edge, or the diameter, equal
- 11 -
-13
to 1.32 x 10 cm, while time is divided into moments, each moment lasting
-24
4,4 x 10 sec. In the deduction stated, only three well known constants of
nature were used. The most important of the three seems to be Planck's unit
-27
of action h = 6. 6 x 10 ergsec.
It is, of course, to be understood that the quantized space-time concept
applies only to the inside of the universe which is considered finite. What lies
beyond, it is impossible for us to know or even imagine.
The fact remains that the concepts of space and time are meaningless and
wholly mathematical, unless something is happening in them. Thus, we must ask
ourselves the question: Why should these two entities be quantized and how?
The only consistent answer is: The space must be full of energy. As Max Born
once remarked: "A vibration is impossible unless there is something to vibrate
with". That '’Something" consists of unit photons. Inasmuch as energy and matter
are equivalent and convertible one into the other, it follows that space must also
contain matter.
Just because matter and energy embodied in ether as defined here are not
detectable by any of our instruments or senses and that they are not subject either
to gravitation or inertia, it is no proof that they do not exist. It is readily imagi¬
nable that our bodies and instruments are completely transparent with respect to
ether. The presence of ether is noticeable only in a round-about way, e.g. , by
means of centrifugal forces and the resistance of bodies to various types of
acceleration and changes of momentum.
It is also equally imaginable that certain smallest particles, the unit photons,
are able to escape the meshes of gravitation and inertia, providing however that
they are suitably dispersed over the required number of space quanta.
We shall now calculate the mass of the unit photon and denote it with the
symbol Ah .
The largest energy quantum which nature can produce was already calculated:
E max = mc ^ = - 1.5 x 10 ^ erg (10)
in which m is the mass of the solid core of the nucleon and N is the frequency
of vibration of ether.
- 12 -
We assume that there also exists a minimum quantum of energy in universe.
After Planck's definition, it may be assumed that the quantum of action h is
indivisible and that no smaller quantum than h can be found in nature. Since h
contains no fractions, nature can only form a series of following energy quanta:
h/sec, 2h/sec, 3h/sec, ........ hNerg (11)
23
That is, there are N = 2,3 x 10 possible energy quanta m nature, ranging
from a minimum E . = h/sec to a maximum E = hNerg. (12)
min max
Similarly, there are 2, 3 x 10 possible action quanta. The action series is of
the following form:
h, 2h, 3h, ........ hN' ergsec (13)
Note that in the above action series N' is no longer a frequency, it is only a
numb'e r.
We are now in a position to define the minimum energy and action quanta or units,
(14)
2 -27
Minimum energy = ^Ac = h/sec = 6. 6 x 10 erg
-27
Minimum action = h = 6. 6 x 10 ergsec
(15)
From this the mass
/*
= m =1.66x10
w
of the unit photon is
24
7. 2 x 10
■ 48
gram
( 16 )
2.3 x 10
Ether contains one unit photon in each space cubicle or quantum.
All matter is composed of unit photons in various degrees of concentration.
23
For example, the solid comsof nucleons comprise 2.3 x 10 unit photons each
20
while the electrons consist of only 1.23 x 10 unit photons each and each occupies
a single space quantum.
13 3
The density of matter = 1.38 x .10 gram/cm , as already stated. Thus,
a cm 3 of the primordial matter would weigh upwards of a billion tons!
- 13 -
Further calculations show the following dimensions of the unit photon:
mass
diameter
7.2x10 ^ gram
= 2.7 x 10
• 25
cm
26
cross section = 5,7 x 10 barns
number/cm^ = 4. 4 x 10^®
energy density
of ether
volume
= 68 kg cal/cm
= 5, 2 x 10 ^ cm^/unit photon
density of
ether
= 3. 16 x 10 ^gram/cm^
From the above it follows that both energy and action are atomicized entities
and consist of very small and indivisible units or quanta, h/sec and h respectively.
- 14 -
6, Cavity Radiation and Steady States
As it was already mentioned, this theory is based on the principle of standing
waves. Such standing fields may be found in Kirchhoff's "heated enclosures" and
also in atoms.
The modern quantum physics is based mainly upon the properties of nuclear
and electronic shells in atoms. A "steady state" is obtained when the periods of
vibration are quantized according to certain quantum numbers. In this way the
vibrations and spins are endlessly repeated and the dissipation of energy from the
atom is thereby prevented.
From these considerations came the following supposition:
The entire universe is in fact a standing wave field.
In heated enclosures, the cavity is filled with a standing field of radiation only,
the air having been previously exhausted. Of greatest interest is to note that as
soon as a state of equilibrium is reached between the walls of the vessel and the
radiation, no further addition of heat or any other energy is required to maintain
the field. Thus, space has a certain capacity for absorbing and holding energy
and that capacity increases with the temperature. The wave length is the measure
both of the temperature and the specific energy content in a cavity.
In ether, the field acquires i.t§ maximum possible rate of vibration, N =
23 3
2.3 x 10 per sec and therefore, £he maximum specific action per cm . However,
this action is not associated either with, temperature or pressure.
One might ask here: how and why? The explanation is that in pure ether there
are no collisions. Each unit photon vibrates in its own space quantum and does not
collide with the next photon in the next space quantum. Heat and pressure will be
generated only in the presence of matter which may be considered as a derivative
and an impurity somehow created from ether itself in the distant past.
A steady state of a field, or radiation, is characterized by the fact that
energy is neither absorbed nor emitted unless there be a perturbation of some
- 15
kind. In such a case a field may act as a reflector, a resonator or a transformer
with respect to the said extraneous impulses.
All standing fields require a boundary. Ether itself must have a boundary
which will reflect the waves coming in one direction and turn them around to travel
in the opposite direction.
We can only speculate on what the boundary of ether might be.
It is conceivable that the absolute vacuum Which surrounds the universe acts
as an insulator or reflector through which the unit photons cannot pass* or if they
do pass, can only pass with a finite velocity.
In such a case, the dissipation of ether may not be noticeable within historic
times, providing however, that the universe is much larger than we think it is. The
9
present estimate of the radius of universe is approximately 1.2 x 10 light years,
but if the universe expands with the speed of light as it seems reasonable to assume,
that radius is altogether too small by a factor of about 10.
Einstein had this same difficulty with his space time continuum because that
continuum must also have a boundary.
It will be remembered that Planck discovered the quantum of action h in
studying the heated enclosure in 1900. This phenomenal discovery forms the basis
of modern physics and of this theory as well. Of particular interest is the
de Broglie's discovery of waves which accompany any moving particle. The
theory is based on Planck's quantum of action and Einstein's discovery of the
mass-energy equivalence.
In this theory, de Broglie's principle is extended by reversal. Thus, when a
body moves, it is surrounded by a swarm of unit photons, the waves, In reversal,
whenever a body is surrounded by a swarm of unit photons, it must move. This
leads to the most significant assumption, namely: aTLforces, momenta, kinetic
energies, relativistic increments of masses, etc., are caused by means of
transference of unit photons from one body to another. This transference may
also be tied in with the law of entropy, meaning that free photons may be
- 16
transferred from a locus of a greater action to the locus of a lower action, but
not in the opposite direction. By this means the principle of nuclear energy
transference also becomes clearer. This factor also justifies us in assuming
that ether is an inviolable standing field and possesses a higher frequency and
action than any other entity in the universe, including the intranuclear binding
energies,
i
- 17 -
7. The Subgravitational Masses
The idea that there exists matter which is not subject to either gravitation or
inertia will be considered by most people as absurd and impossible.
Yet, by far the largest proportion of matter in the universe is of such a
3 8
character. It was already calculated that ether consists of 4. 4 x 10 space
3
quanta for each cm and each such quantum contains a unit photon having a mass of
AO
7.2 x 10“ gram. From this, the specific gravity, or density, of ether is equal
9/3 3
to 3. 16 x 10 gra,m/cm . In other words, each km of "empty" space contains
three tons of matter, approximately.
The question now arises: j ust where does the line of demarkation, existing
between imponderable and ponderable matter lie ?
In ether or in light, there is only one unit photon in a space quantum. As is
well known, these entities possess no ponderable mass and no inertia. Inertial
effects will be noticeable in these entities only when they are perturbed by matter
and thus lose their original structures. For example, light cannot exert pressure
until it ceases to be light.
When a number of photons congregate in the same space quantum and the
number increases up to a certain not now known amount, the entit-y will become
ponderable, i. e. , it will be affected by gravitation and will presumably exhibit
inertial properties. But where?
20
We know already that an electron consists of 1.23 x 10 unit photons. At
this point the electric charges appear. This might be significant. It is conceive
able, but not proved as yet, that electric charges, the gravitational effects and
inertia all would appear together, at the same point of unit photon density.
This hypothesis ought to be investigated, in laboratories. If it should prove
to be true, the key to the long sought "unified theory" for which Einstein searched
so long, would be found.
Another curious result would also be forthcoming. All ponderable mass
^28
increments should be integral multiples of the electron mass, 9.1 x 10 gram.
18
This might be possible to verify experimentally by measuring the relativistic
mass increases, for example, in a cyclotron. If this hypothesis should be true,
the relativistic mass increases will also be found to consist of finite and indivis¬
ible quanta, each such quantum being exactly equal to the "rest mass" of an
electron.
- 19
^_ThLM.^hanics of the Unive^
The universe as a whole is an operative mechanism or process Th f
" mUS COmpriSe a11 the operative elements which are sufficient and
operation. We know some of these elements but the ^ neceSSa ^ f -
are still missing. For examnle ’ ^ ^ im P ortant details
-tremor-' which pervades the worlT r6aS ° nS f ° r ^ universal
the relativistic mass increase, the dual nature of Ughf'tteT inertU -
equipartition of forces, momenta and Kinetic energies 'the 7 aad
the stability of the atoms and so on, ad libitum. ’ ° £ in ' rtia -
dynamic machine. It operate TZZH ' C<>l0SSal therm °‘
and obeys that most fundamental of all laws of nature, the 1“
wher!:r:i :ri^:r tio v n the quauty ° £ —-—
irreversible thermodynamic cycle operates.
Entropy also means a transition from the state of orderliness into disorderline
combinatil’T*' 13 3 Cha “ Se ' eSS Pr ° bable combinations into more probable
The reversible processes ^.
processes are quasi-perpetual be ° V” ^ 1Ch ^ ® nergy is gained or lost. Such
waves" the motions, vibrations and 2 J “ d
Without abatement. The best ettamples for ^op'"’t C ° r ‘ tia ' 1 ' > £ ° reVer
the atoms, the heated enclosures and the behavior of vasTm" ^
From a practical standpoint, the irreversible
interesting, because it is only by means of ■ m “ Ch m ° re
to obtain energy from nature's —vers.ble cycles that we are able
f ° y d-rom nature's reservoir fnr m™ o„,
uu « ior our own uses.
It is an object of this article to show that the law of entronv
the thermodynamic cycles but that it also applies to radiation “*
action. radiatt ° ! ’' the temP ° ral 36qUeaCa ° f emission of unit photons is the
SS,
- 20 -
The numerical magnitude of action is the definition of the quality of energy.
The law'of entropy demands that in irreversible processes the magnitude of
action must be degraded in each cycle.
All energies, including the nuclear energy, are based on the degradation of
the action of unit photons, i.e., whenever the cycles are irreversible.
We may now ask the question: In precisely what manner is the action of unit
photons transferred? Just as in heat transfer: the body having a higher temperature
causes the heat to flow downwardly, toward lower temperatures but never, as a rule,
in the opposite direction.
Similarly in radiation, energy having a higher rate of action will tend to
dissipate itself into a number of lesser actions, but never in the opposite direction.
The Compton effect, the radiation coming from the sun and stars, the nuclear
energy as exemplified by fission, fusion and radioactivity, all follow the rules of
entropy increase.
The law of entropy also throws an interesting light upon the history of universe.
As was previously stated, entropy increase means also an increase in disorderliness.
From this it follows that originally, universe must have been in a greater state of
orderliness than it is now. Ether is the uppermost limit of orderliness, in fact, it
is the orderliness itself. From this we conclude that ether iS the origin of every¬
thing else, that is, the world as we know it in all its aspects and combinations, is
only a derivative of ether.
- 21 -
9. Remarks on the Theory of Light
According to this theory, ether is a volume of very thin photon gas which
vibrates in a steady state arid at a constant wave length, throughout the universe, .
-13
The wave length is a constant of nature, 1.32 x 10 cm, the edge of the
space quantum, while the time of one vibration is another constant of nature, the
-24
time quantum, 4.4 x 10 sec. Each space quantum contains one unit photon having
-48 -25
a mass of 7. 2 x 10 gram and a diameter of 2. 7 x 10” cm.
Light spreads through ether in very much the same manner as does electric
current through a wire. A unit photon arrives into a space quantum and dislocates
the photon already there. That photon imparts the impulse to next quantum and
photon, that one to the next and the next one with the result that the original impulse
spreads all the way through the universe. When the said impulse finally collides
e, g. with a mass particle, this will form a perturbation in the process, and the
nature of light will correspondingly change. A beam of light is thus composed from
a multitude of §uch elementary rays.
Action is the number of impulses per second, i. e., the aum per second of
individual, unit pulses each having an action numerically equal to h in each ray.
There is no way of finding out just exactly how the space quanta are arranged.
Light finds its way through the quanta by following the principles of least action
dnd least time, the said two principles being also known as the Maupertuis and
Fermat principles, respectively.
Hence, the straight line propagation of light is not literally true. Light rays
lire transmitted in only approximately straight lines through ether. There might
be some privileged directions along which the line of propagation is somewhat
straightex than along others, but it is doubtful that this slight variation could ever
be experimentally proved because the aberration at best is very minute.
This theory postulates, therefore, that light is a corpuscular, or more
correctly, an action phenomenon caused by the dislocation of unit photons in
ether.
-22 -
It consists of individual unit pulses of the same velocity and magnitude h»-
The number of the pulses per second determines the action of each light ray and
when the said action is multiplied by frequency, we obtain the familiar energy
quantum. It is to be noted that the dimension of action is ergsec and that of
energy is only erg.
As is well known, the light quanta occupy an enormous range when classified
according to their wave lengths. Wave lengths are always expressible in integral
numbers of space quanta and the reciprocals of frequencies are expressed in
integral numbers of time quanta in this theory. The energy of any single ray is
not affected by the distance traveled. From this it follows that the exact location
of the source of ray is immaterial. It further follows that any ray passing through
our instruments, as in Michelson-Morley experiment, for example, is an entirely
local phenomenon. By this means it is possible to explain the "negative" result of
said experiment without any recourse to the theory of relativity, as it will be
further in shown.
- 23 -
10. On the Origi n of Electric Charges
Thfe nature and origin of the electric charges is easily the most baffiling
problem in the entire physics.
It is interesting to note that according to the present theory, the electric
20
charges do not appear until the density of unit photons reaches 1.23 x .10 per
space quantum, i. e. , the mass of the electron.
The theory further postulates that the above photon density is some kind of a
critical number in nature, at which also the gravitation and the inertia make their
first appearance. This should be checked and possibly verified by thoughtfully
planned experiments. The proof would consist in checking the relativistic mass
increments of electrons in a cyclotron. The increments should all be integral
multiples of electron masses, i. e. , quantized.
It seems that electric charge results from a spin. Furthermore, the spin must
be three dimensional as for instance happens in a helix or a spherical helix, because,
only in such a case would it be possible to distinguish between right-hand and left-
hand directions. Ordinary circle or ellipse would not do because e. g. , a clockwise
rotating circle becomes anti-clockwise when turned upside down. But a right-handed
helix always remains right-handed regardless of how it is being turned around.
\
By this means it would be possible to distinguish between positive and negative
charges.
It remains to imagine some sort of process by means of which the charges of
equal sign repel each other and those of the opposite sign attract each other.
Induction and the pair formation from gamma rays are also terrific problems.
■Ether is a positive field of equal potential throughout the space. Attraction
and repulsion require fields of a variable potential. In particular, attraction is
the result of a negative field while repulsion implies a positive field.
Fields may be superposed and added like vectors.
Hence, all fields are combinations of at least two fields, one of them being
ether.
- 24 -
Gravitation is relatively .easily explained because the field being attractive,
is negative a.nd has the characteristics of a shadow, i..e. , the potential diminishes
towards the body.
In electric charges, the situation is confusing because the positive and
negative charges seem to be fully equivalent and yet they are different from each
other.
Dirac's idea on positron is interesting but it is hardly understandable or
imaginable. The idea of a negative energy levels and holes in what might be
termed a plasma is attractive enough, but it is difficult to see the mechanism
inside the atom which can produce such holes.
- 25 -
11, On Nuclear Energy
This theory throws an interesting light upon the possible geometrical structure
of nuclei. In fact, the diameters of various nuclei may now be determined by cal¬
culation and more accurately than ever before.
This is due to the pecularity of the disposition of matter with respect to the
space quanta.
As was previously stated., by the virtue of the rule of complementarity existing
between space and matter, no particle can occupy more than one space quantum at
the same instant. Similarly, no two nucleons can touch one another, and the
minimum distance between the two adjacent nucleons must be equal to at least one
space quantum, or to an integral multiple thereof.
Yukawa, in calculating the exchange forces, predicted the existence of mesons.
-13
He assumed that the center distance between two adjacent nucleons was 2, 6 x 10
cm. This is in close agreement with this theory, in which the exact Yukawa distance
should be 2. 64 x 10 ^ cm.
Another example may be mentioned in this connection. The radius of an alpha
-13
particle was estimated in laboratory measurements to be equal to 2 x 10 cm.
The correct diameter is 3 space quanta and the radius is 1-1/2 space quanta, that
-13
is, 1,95 x 10 cm. Note the close agreement between laboratory measurements
and the theory.
The reason why two nucleons cannot touch each other is that on account of the
fields, the spins and the interposed de Broglie waves, such a contact is physically
impossible. Furthermore, that fact has also been experimentally proved, witness
the above two examples.
Nuclei contain "bottled-up" energy in the form of binding energies. As is
well, known, the nuclei consist of a plurality of major particles, protons and
neutrons and of intranuclear spaces filled with, matter or radiation of lesser
density than the said nucleons.
- 26 -
As no nucleon can occupy more than one space quantum at any one time and
no two nucleons can touch each other except through fields, as already stated, it
follows that each nucleon must be surrounded by from six to twelve empty space
cubicles, depending on the geometrical and crystalline arrangement of the said
quanta. From this it follows that the nucleus is to a large extent empty. This
writer once calculated the matter content of a uranium nucleus and found that the
nucleus was approximately 92 per cent empty, bsused on a hexagonal crystalline
structure presumed in the nucleus.
Matter obviously exists in two modifications,, as it might be termed, the "hard"
matter and the "soft" matter.
"Hard" matter is found in the solid cores of neutrons and protons. The "soft"
matter consists of mesons, electrons, positrons and neutrinos.
As first suggested by Mosharaffa, it may be imagined that matter originated
from "congealed radiation". Thus "hard" matter may be conceived to have first
appeared in the form of droplets resulting from the condensation of ether.
Before such a condensation could take place, it was necessary for ether to be
first organized into a complex consisting of definite and stable space and time
quanta.
The said "droplets" became the cores of the neutrons and protons, the "hard"
matter. The remaining "soft" matter was formed, according to this hypothesis,
from the grouping of free unit photons about the said cores as a result of the spin
and the perturbation of the structure of ether. By this means neutrons, protons
and possibly antiprotons might have been formed*
Hence, we may explain why the said droplets or cores seem to be all exactly
alike throughout the universe. The space quanta are simply a measure or the
capacity of ether to form droplets of solid matter of a predermined diameter and
density.
It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that the cores consist of matter 100%
pure and inert. This explains why e. g. , in fission or fusion only the "soft" parts
of matter can be utilized for the production of energy while the cores remain
unalterable and intact.
- 27
This form of reasoning leads to another interesting hypothesis about the cause
of the stability of atoms. In this writer's opinion, the cause will be found in the
principle of entropy. This hypothesis will be now discussed.
- 28 -
12. A Hypothesis on the Stability of Atoms
As it was already staled* all electromagnetic radiation is in substance of the
same character. Each ray consists of a series of impulses and each impulse
consists of a dislocation of a single unit photon. The only difference is in time
intervals 3 as measured in time quanta s which separates one impulse from the
next one.
Hence, the difference is in the action of the individual rays. Rays transmitted
through ether follow the principles of least action and least time. Therefore, the
successive pulses follow the same paths through ether. The paths of rays are very
nearly straight lines but not necessarily exactly ao.
Ether comprises one unit photon in each and every space quantum in a three-
dimensional array. All these photons vibrate in their respective space quanta
because of the steady state and a standing wave properties of ether.
From this it follows that ether represents the ultimate or maximum of action
because the time interval between two successive pulses is the shortest possible
-24
and is exactly equal to one time quantum, 4.4 x 10 sec. All other electro-
magnetic rays exhibit greater time intervals, i. e„ , the. successive pulses are
separated from each other by a plurality of time quanta.
Action is closely analogous to tempera ture and temperature is a thermodynam¬
ical concept contained in the law of entropy. Namely, a transition from a state of
lesser entropy, i. e,, lesser time intervals between adjacent pulses to those of a
greater entropy number is permissible, but the process is irreversible as
previously Stated.
Due to certain perturbations to which ether is subjected by the presence of
matter, it is possible for a plurality of unit photons to occupy the same space
quantum. In this way fields and matter may be created.
However, it is to be noted that each unit photon acts in its own behalf and has
its own particular action. Therefore, while the energy content of a certain space
quantum may be enormously increased by the infusion of a great number of unit
photons, that does not mean that the action was increased to a point above that of
- 28 -
12. A Hypothesis on the Stability of Atoms
As it was already stated* all electromagnetic radiation is in substance of the
same character. Each ray consists of a series of impulses and each impulse
consists of a dislocation of a single unit photon. The only difference is in time
intervals, as measured in time quanta, which separates one impulse from the
next one.
Hence, the difference is in the action• of the individual rays. Rays transmitted
through ether follow the principles of least action and least time. Therefore, the
successive pulses follow the same paths through ether. The paths of rays are very
nearly straight lines but not necessarily exactly ao»
Ether comprises one unit photon in each and every space quantum in a three-
dimensional array. All these photons vibrate in their respective space quanta
because of the steady state and a standing wave properties of ether.
From this it follows that ether represents the ultimate or maximum of action
because the time interval between two successive pulses is the shortest possible
and is exactly equal to one time quantum* 4. 4 x 1Q“ 24 sec. All other electro¬
magnetic rays exhibit greater time intervals, i. e„ , the successive pulses are
separated from each other by a plurality of time quanta.
Action is closely analogous to tempera ture and temperature is a thermodynam¬
ical concept contained in the law of entropy. Namely, a transition from a state of
lesser entropy, i.e,, lesser time intervals between adjacent pulses to those of a
greater entropy number is permissible, but the process is irreversible as
previously stated.
Due to certain perturbations to which ether is subjected by the presence of
matter, it is possible for a plurality of unit photons to occupy the same space
quantum. In this way fields and matter may be created.
However, it is to be noted that each unit photon acts in its own behalf and has
its own particular action. Therefore, while the energy content of a certain space
quantum may be enormously increased by the infusion of a great number of unit
photons, that does not mean that the action was increased to a point above that of
- 28 ~
12. A Hypothesis on the Stability of Atoms
As it was already stated, all electromagnetic radiation is in substance of the
same character. Each ray consists of a series of impulses and each impulse
consists of a dislocation of a single unit photon. The only difference is in time
intervals, as measured in time quanta, which separates one impulse from the
next one.
Hence, the difference is in the action of the individual rays. Rays transmitted
through ether follow the principles of least action and least time. Therefore, the
successive pulses follow the same paths through ether. The paths of rays are very
nearly straight lines but not necessarily exactly so.
Ether comprises one unit photon in each and every space quantum in a three-
dimensional array. All these photons vibrate in their respective space quanta
because of the steady state and a standing wave properties of ether.
From this it follows that ether represents the ultimate or maximum of action
because the time interval between two successive pulses is the shortest possible
and is exactly equal to one time quantum, 4. 4 x 10" 24 sec. All other electro¬
magnetic rays exhibit greater time intervals, i. e, , the successive pulses are
separated from each other by a plurality of time quanta.
Action is closely analogous to tempera ture and temperature is a thermodynam¬
ical concept contained in the law of entropy. Namely, a transition from a state of
lesser entropy, i. e. , lesser time intervals between adjacent pulses to those of a
greater entropy number is permissible, but the process is irreversible as
previously stated.
Due to certain perturbations to which ether is subjected by the presence of
matter, it is possible for a plurality of unit photons to occupy the same space
quantum. In this way fields and matter may be created.
However, it is to be noted that each unit photon acts in its own behalf and has
its own particular action. Therefore, while the energy content of a certain space
quantum may be enormously increased by the infusion of a great number of unit
photons, that does not mean that the action was increased to a point above that of
~ 29 -
ether. By definitions that is impossibles because ether already possesses the
maximum of action and all other combinations or groupings of unit photons must,
of necessity, possess a lesser action.
Thus, the intraatomic or intranuclear photon, congregations possess more
energy per space quantum, but less action than ether.
T'his brings into play the law of entropy. A transition of photons from ether
into the atom is impossible after a certain level of saturation has been accomplished
in atoms and a steady state has been obtained. We have here a situation in which
two steady state configurations are imbedded one into the other. That is, atoms
including nuclei, are fields of a lesser action imbedded into a field of a greater
action. That such a thing is possible, can best be seen from the behavior of
particles in cavity radiation. There, foreign particles, provided that they have
smaller diameters than the wave length in the cavity, will vibrate together with
the remainder of the radiation in the cavity indefinitely.
Hence, the origin of nuclear energy and the Aston mass defect may be
explained. As Einstein already quoted said, "Matter is where the concentration
of energy is great, and field is where the concentration is small". Nuclei,
therefore, consist of matter and fields, all of which have a greater specific energy
content and less action, than ether. Note that energy consists .of unit photon® and
the quality of energy consists of the actions of the said photons. On the other
hand, electric, inertial and gravitational effects are unobservable until a certain,
predetermined density of unit photons per space quantum has been obtained.
It was already suggested that there might exist in nature, a critical number,
20
or a critical density of unit photons, 1,23 x 10 per space quantum, at which,
point matter appears as such i, e.., it becomes ponderable and capable of exerting
electrical and inertial properties. We shall need another Millikan or a
J. J. Thomson to prove this hypothesis experimentally. It was suggested iq a
preceding paragraph that relativistic mass increases might be quantized in
accordance with tlye said critical number.
This would explain the true nature of the binding energies, i. e., the "soft"
part of matter in nuclei. Thus in Aston curve, only such portions of unit photons
which exceed the critical density would appear as parts of the nuclear mass. The
rest, if any, would not be noticed or detectable by our instruments.
- 30 -
In producing nuclear energy f it appears that after the processes of fission or
fusion have taken place, the nuclear bonds are broken to a certain extent and the
captive unit photons are dispersed in the adjoining space, thus reducing both the
action and density of the captive photons. The loss of acti on appears as a gain of
energy, and the loss of density appears as a loss of ponderable matter. These two
altered conditions seem to fulfill exactly Einstein's famous mass energy relation
-r-» 2
E = me .
The available intranuclear action is dissipated in the form of Compton effects
following the rule of increased entropy.
Thus, the only possibility of obtaining usable energy from any source is to
generate irreversible processes in which the action and density of unit photons per
quantum are reduced and entropy is correspondingly increased.
- 31 -
13. The Basis for a Unified Theory
It was a long sought object in science to find some sort of a mechanical or
factual basis for a doctrine which would bring the electrodynamic, inertial or
gravitational effects observable in nature, under the same unified heading.
Einstein was particularly diligent in search of such a principle.
Unfortunately, the mathematical and laboratory methods have proved insufficient
to even approach this- "problem of problems, "
It was often said in the past that "God must have been a mathematician". Granting
that this statement is true, it is by no means certain that God was using the same kind
of mathematics which, we are using.
The difficulty Is in the fact that our mathematical and laboratory resources are
full of holes. As this article proves to a certain extent, some of the most important
factors in nature are totally inaccessible either to mathematical or laboratory treatment.
In the writer’s opinion, the only possibility of coming anywhere near the solution
of this intricate problem is by means of philosophy and invention.
Einstein himself was of this opinion when he said: "The bases of science which
cannot be obtained by experience, can be attained only by free invention". In fact,
in looking over the recent history of science, we come to the conclusion that most of
the prominent physicists in the twentieth century were actually inventors In disguise.
It is practically impossible to discover anything really new in physics or mathematics
any more without first generating in one's mind an inventive or creative idea or, as
Henry Poin,care pointed out, "a number of closely related ideas, all aiming at the
same objective". These ideas are usually of a subconscious origin.
In this theory it is believed a good beginning was made along these lines by
first postulating that there must be an ether, i, e, , a complex having a maximum of
action and a minimum of unit photon content.
If we now assume a further hypothesis, namely, that in nature there is such a
thing as a critical number, that is, a critical density of unit photons occupying the
32
same space quantum at which point the electrical charges, the inertia, and the
ponderability of matter make their simultaneous appearance, the unifying principle
will loom on the horizon, as already stated.
It was also previously suggested in this paper that the existence of the said
critical number might be provable experimentally.
- 33
14, Remarks on the Theory of Relativity
An important byproduct of this theory is that it leads to a very considerable
simplificat ion of the theory of relativity.
As is well known, the said theory originated from the Lor entz-Fitzgerald
equations and the Michelson-Morley experiments. Upon these bases, Einstein
and Minkowski constructed an elaborate mathematical structure of a four-dimen¬
sional space-time continuum.
Strictly speaking, there is no direct connection whatever between space and
time. Both are imaginary and mathematical concepts, something like two
coordinates in geometry.
In this theory, the space and time quanta have been determined on the basis of
certain constants peculiar to this universe of ours. It is easily imaginable that in
some other universe, or, for that matter, in this universe when and if such constants
of nature as the Planck constant, the atomic mass unit, the velocity of light and the
density or specific gravity of the primordial mass were altered, the relations
between space and time quanta would also be altered. Hence, there is no,organic
or immutable connection between space and time.
It is sufficient to recall the method according to which the space and time quanta
were calculated in this theory:
velocity of light =
wave length of ether =
space quantum
time quantum
me
in which the wave length is equal to the diameter of the largest solid particle which
the nature can build and m is the mass of the said particle. The said diameter can
also be determined by knowing the mass rn^and its density , or by measuring
the velocity of light.
However, it may be regarding the space-time continuum, the theory of relativity
led to three basic discoveries in physics namely, a) the rule of the mass-energy
2
equivalence, E = me , b) to the mass increment of bodies at velocities approaching
34
that of light and c) in establishing the velocity of light as the maximum possible
velocity which the nature can produce and its constancy in all directions.
As it happens* since Einstein's discoveries a great many things happened to
science and now we find that all three theses of Einstein may be proved to be
correct without even saying a word anywhere about relativity and its marvellous
mathematics.
This goes to show that in the theory of relativity, the most important discoveries
were made not by mathematics, but, we are tempted to say, in spite of it. They
were discovered by invention and the mathematical dressing-up only served the
purpose of making the inventions acceptable and palatable to certain mathematically
inclined circles. This fact was well known e. g. fco Soddy, already quoted. We now
briefly analyze the three discoveries, a, b, and c.
a) Mass energy equivalence is amply proved by fission, fusion, pair formation,
radioactivity and the Aston curve. No relativity needs to be mentioned here
at all.
b) The mass increment (relativistic) follows from de Broglie's theory as
modified by the present theory. It is impossible for a particle to reach
a high velocity unless it was first accelerated by means of a force acting
upon it. A force acts through unit photon transference which results in
the kinetic energy, an "invisible cargo" of photons, which accompanies
the moving particle. This theory further states that the said mass
increments are quantized according to certain critical quantum numbers.
Therefore, when a certain photon density in the accompanying de Broglie
waves has been attained, the said waves will exhibit definite inertial and
ponderable properties, i, e. they will become matter or a field.
c) Once the existence of space and time quanta is accepted, the limiting or
maximum velocity which is possible in ether is automatically defined.
The Michelson-Morley experiments need a further comment.
As was previously stated, in this theory the space and time quanta are absolute
and unchangeable throughout the universe. This is the original Newton concept.
- 35 -
However, Michelson-Morley experiments have shown that there is no ether
drift. This looks like a contradiction, because there should be a drift when the
earth is moving about 30 km/sec while ether remains stationary.
The contradiction can be explained in plain language and v/iiihout a necessity
of changing the time or space units, as was done in the theory of relativity.
We simply assume that earth has a field of its own which moves together
with it through ether. This is the gravitational field which incidentally has a great
resemblance to a shadow.
Hence, this moving field is something like an island universe moving through
ether without a drag. However, the space and time quanta in this island universe
are the same as in the stationary universe.
Light is an entirely local phenomenon and its velocity is determined by the
ratio of space and time iquanta providing however, that the rays are permitted to
travel in straight lines, as in vacuum or thin air. '■
Hence, the Michelson experiment simply proves that light is moving in the
earth's relative field instead of in an absolute field. Note than all other physical
phenomena including the inertial effects, electric currents, chemical reactions,
etc., behave in a similar manner. There is no reason to believe that light should
behave differently from other forms of radiations or forces.
- 36 -
15, Kinetic Energy and the Relativistic Mass Increase
The nature of kinetic energy was a favorite topic among scientists since the
time of Aristotle. It was believed that a flying arrow carried with it an "invisible
cargo" which a similar arrow at rest did not possess.
According to this theory, the idea of an invisible cargo is substantially correct.
As was already pointed out, the forces and energies are transferred from one
particle to another and from one body to another in the form of a swarm of unit
photons. The transference takes place in collisions, accelerations or any other
changes of momentum. De Broglie waves are such swarms and when the swarms
20
or waves reach a certain critical density (probably 1.23 x 10 photons per space
quantum), the increase of mass and inertia become measurable. Otherwise, i. e.,
below the critical density, the de Broglie waves are only fields having no measurable
inertia or ponderable mass.
Hence, in a relativistic mass increase the major particles which have been
accelerated, remain in a state in which they were originally and their numbers do
not change. It is only the mass of the de Broglie wave Which changes.
- 37 -
16, On gravitation and inertia
The quantized and energized ether is the cause of gravitation and inertia.
Mach and Einstein assumed that both effects were caused by the metric
space-time complex which was energized, by masses allegedly evenly distributed
in the universe.
This theory does not require any such explanation. The gravitational field is
spread over the ether field as over a carpet. As it was previously stated, when the
earth is moving in its orbit around the sun, the gravitational field moves together with
it while ether remains stationary. Nevertheless, the Michel son-? Morley experiments
may be explained in a simple manner by merely assuming that light being a local
phenomenon independent of its source follows the moving field and not the stationary
one. In this manner, the velocity of light remains constant in all directions and
behaves in exactly the same manner as if the earth were not moving at all.
Inasmuch as the gravitational field exerts an attraction upon matter, it follows
that the field is negative, i.e„, it consists of a weakening of the ether field in the
vicinity of masses. From this we conclude that gravitation is substantially a shadow
effect* Inertial effects are entirely local, i, e„ , they do not comprise a field as does
the gravitation and therefore are not related to gravitation.
As was stated, the structures of matter and ether are complementary of each
other and comprise two congruent spatial divisions or networks.
For this reason there is no inertial effect observable during an absolute
motion, i.e., a uniform motion in a straight line.
However, when forces act upon a body, the disposition of the accompanying
de Broglie waves changes: they may increase in content and also may become non-
symmetrical with respect to the moving body. This results in a change of momentum
or direction and this change in turn reacts upon the structure of ether.
It may be assumed that ether resists a change of momentum and therefore
forms a basis for a reaction to forces. It is readily seen that Newton's law of
action and reaction is true not only among material bodies but it also includes ether.
- 38 -
Because, in following a chain of actions and reactions however long, ultimately we
always must end in contact with space or ether.
Hence, inertia could not exist if ether did not exist at the same time, because
all inertial changes and effects involve a transference of unit photons. On the other
hand, it is impossible for unit photons to be transferred from one place to another
without the use of space and time quanta, i„ e,, ether.
39 -
17. Causality and Determinism
This theory deals not only with problems in physics but also with philosophy.
Once we accept the idea that the entire universe, including ether 1 , is in a
state of quasi-perpetual tremor in which* all particles and unit photons residing in
space quanta are forever moving, vibrating or rotating, we must conclude that
universe as a whole, resembles a living organism.
Of particular significance is to note that universe has gone through a long
period of evolution before it has reached its present complex state. This is due to
the law of entropy.
Accordingly, universe has evolved from a state of pristinq orderliness, which
is pure ether into a state of maximum or increased probabilities, which is chaos
or varieties.
As was stated, ether is an entity which comprises a maximum of action and
a minimum of unit photon content per space quantum. Entropy causes the said
action to diminish and the specific photon content to increase. In this manner,
matter was formed from ether.
In this article we have postulated that space and time are discontinuous and
consist of indivisible units or quanta. This completes the picture of quantization,
which condition of matter and events embraces the entire universe and makes it
appear as consisting entirely of integers, spatial, temporal and energetic,
containing no fractions.
This is important. Any entity containing no fractions cannot be divided into
parts with a mathematical accuracy. After each division there is usually a
remnant. From this it follows that the effect is never or very seldom exactly
equal to the cause and usually equals it only approximately.
So, after each event, there is left a remnant of uncertainty. Through the
course of time, these remnants are integrated and may become sizable and
important. In other words, the future is not predictable with an absolute certainty
from the past or present, nor is the past exactly determinable from the present.
40 -
It may be added that life itself would be impossible without the said uncertain
ties. Evolution is based therefore, on the existence of mutations and uncertainties
and those again are based upon the quantized structure of nature.
41 -
18. On Fields
Fields are the connecting link between matter and ether. Ether cannot act
against matter except through fields and matter cannot react upon ether except
through fields.
From this it follows that fields cannot be formed in the absence of matter
and ether. In fields, the action of ether is diminished and the specific photon
content is increased.
In matter, the procedure is extended in that action is further diminished and
the specific photon content is further increased.
This metamorphosis is due to the law of entropy.
Fields are of two kinds, the "closed" and "open" fields. Closed fields are
self-sufficient and persist on the basis of standing waves as qua si-perpetual
mechanisms,
For example, atoms are such mechanisms. Other fields are open such as the
electromagnetic radiation and require a continuous energy or photon influx for their
maintenance.
Gravitation is a unique field in that it is open and yet it requires no energy
influx for its existence. From this we conclude that gravitation is a shadow field,
caused by shadow of matter complexes falling upon ether. In this manner it
causes a perturbance in the action of ether generally known as gravitation.
All fields are spread over ether and are, therefore, quantized both in
spacing and the periods of vibration. Hence, we conclude that gravitation, being
a shadow field, must have the same wave length as ether, 1.32 x 10 cm.
- 42 -
19. On Thermonuclear Energy
Atoms are geometrical configurations formed from ether. Some of these
configurations are more probable than others.
As a rule, it might be said that due to the law of entropy, the tendency in
nature is to form more prcbable combinations from the less probable ones.
The principles of Maupertuis and Fermat state that the courses of events
always select the most probable paths, the paths of least action and least time
Correspondingly, the tendency is to form units containing;the strongest possible
bonds and the least amounts of energy. In this process of evolution, energy and
action are liberated. This is the source of energies issuing from the processes of
fission, fusion and radioactivity.
In fusion, that is, in the thermonuclear process, the object is to break up the
less probable combinations and thus obtain energy by forming more probable
combinations.
It is impossible to break up a "steady state" nucleus, having a certain degree
of action except by means having a superior action. In other words, it is necessary
to transform the structures of atoms to be worked on into a plasma, i, e. , disasso¬
ciated matter.
Strictly speaking, the term "thermonuclear 11 is a misnomer, because in
dealing with photonic transmutations temperatures as such do not exist. Here we
afe dealing with actions only which are not to be associated with the macroscopic
concept of temperature.
Temperature is an entirely extraneous and electronic or molecular phenomenon
and has nothing to do with nuclei-and nuclear fields.
Unfortunately, or fortunately, we are unable to use the vast amounts of energy
residing in ether (about 68 kg calories per cm^) because ether is a closed and
untouchable field.
- 43
However, there might be some other electromagnetic radiations, such as
certain gamma rays which possess sufficient action to penetrate the bonds of
promising atoms and might be used to recombine them into structures possessing
less energy.
The practical value of this theory resides mainly in the fact that it stresses
the importance of action in lieu of tenpperature as heretofore, in the scheme of
obtaining thermonuclear energy. Hence, an apparatus combining the fission and
fusion processes in a single unit is indicated by this theory. An H bomb is an
apparatus of this kind.
20, The specifications of ether
- 44 -
NAME SYMBOL VALUE
Velocity of light
c
-3 , n 10 ,
3x10 cm/sec
Quantum of action
h
6 . 6 x IQ " 27 erg sec
Mass unit
m
1.66 x 10~ 24 gram
Frequency of ether
N
2. 3 x 10 23 /sec
Space quantum
d
1.32 x 10 ~^ 3 cm
Volume of m
Vol
m
i i n"39 3
1,2 x 10 cm
Specific gravity
■r
1.38 x 10 33 b/cm 3
Mass of unit photon
A
7.2 x 10" 4 ° gram
Energy of m
E
m
1 .5 x 10 “ 3 erg
Energy of Jtts
6 . 48 x 10 27 erg
Energy of m
3. 57 x 10”^ 4 kg cal
3
No. of quanta/cm
4, 4 x 1 0^/cm 3
Energy of JJ*
1.55 x 10 “ 37 kg cal
3
Energy of ether/cm
68 kg cal
Volume of
5.2 x 10 ~ 63 cm 3
Diameter of JUj
2.7 x 10 “ 27 cm
Specific gravity of ether
3,16x10 ^ g/cm 3
T ime quantum
4,4 x 10" 24 sec
Volume of matter in ether
2.3x10 cm /cm
Mass of electron
m
e
9 . 1 x 10 “ 2 ® gram
Number of photons in
electron
1.23 x 10 20
Cross Section of ^
5.7 x 10“ 5Q cm 2
REMARKS
Planck
The solid core of
a nucleon.
Also the number of
unit photons in m
Also the diameter
of core
Of the core and photons
_ m
___
™ 2
E = me
m
V = c >
934 MEV
Number of space
cubicles/cm 3
Emptiness of ether
5.7 x 10 ~ 26
barns
A NEW THEORY ON ETHER AND MASS-ENERGY RELATIONS
By Nikola J. Trbojevich (Nicholas J. Terbo) (1886-1973), September 24, 1959
To: Dr. James Corum and Dr. Jasmina Vujic: 30 October 2000
From: William H. Terbo
Enclosed is a copy of my father’s space-time physics theory that he developed over forty
years ago. I had set it aside several months ago to send to Jim, he being one of the few
people I know who has both the knowledge of the field and the (hoped for) willingness to
review and comment on what is to me is a fairly esoteric subject. When I mentioned the
work to Jasmina during my October 14-17 visit to UC Berkeley to speak to her Tesla
history course, she asked for a copy for review. It was the spark I needed to get this
effort moving.
I’ve reread the work today. The words are easy, but the concepts aren’t so easy for me so
far removed from my physics education. (It put me in mind of reading Stephen
Hawking’s “A Brief History Of Time.” It took me almost two transcontinental air trips to
momentarily absorb his less than 200 pages of similar material.) A lot of credit must go
to my college friend and tournament bridge partner, the late Burt Randolph, who spent
many weeks with my father acting as a “devil’s advocate” to force dad to defend his
theory, and then managing the organization of the work into its present readable form.
(Burt got his doctorate in Mechanical Engineering at Purdue while I was getting my
bachelor’s.)
This theory is a pretty substantial departure for my father. Most of his previous work was
in the invention of various gears, most notably the basic patent on the Hypoid gear in
1923. It was the first gear design using the application of advanced mathematics. (Tesla
called my dad “my nephew, the mathematician.”) This theory was pretty aggressive
considering the year, 1959, and my father’s age, 73. Research was complicated as the
publishing of much new nuclear science technology was restricted for security reasons,
so more credit is due for dad’s creativity. I know he spent at least seven or eight years
developing his knowledge in the field.
I would appreciate a couple of very brief comments done at your leisure. I really have
only two questions that need resolution for my satisfaction. First, was my dad really on
to something important, or was it too much of a leap? Second, is the theory good but
outdated, or overtaken by current science?
You may distribute this material to your academic colleagues if you wish.
Thanks,
Bill
WHT/njtkl
FOREWORD
This paper deals with the structure of the universe, the nature of space and
time and the mass-energy relations.
The subject matter is of the kind which is not readily approachable either by
laboratory experiments or mathematics. It is the product of free invention.
Nevertheless, the paper contains several ideas relating to nuclear and thermo
nuclear energies, the theories of quanta and relativity, which roay have important
practical consequences.
The writer spent a lifetime as a free-lance engineer and inventor. It is
another object of this paper to demonstrate that the art of invention, when pursued
purposively, diligently and professionally, may easily become a motet valuable
tool in scientific research.
I wish to express my particular thanks to Dr. B. W. Randolph who has read
the first two drafts of this paper and has offered a number of valuable suggestions
in this connection.
September 24, 1959
Santa Monica, Calif.
UNITED STATES PATENT #3,349,002 “NUCLEAR REACTOR”
By Nikola J. Trbojevich - Issued October 24, 1967 (Filed March 28, 1958)
To: Dr. James Corum and Dr. Jasmina Vujic 30 October 2000
From: William H. Terbo
Attached is a copy of my father’s final U.S. Patent, FYI.
Father had a total of between 150 and 200 patents, U.S. and foreign. He was an
independent inventor and consultant almost all of his life with a specialty in gears of all
forms. His most famous invention was the mathematically conceived Hypoid gear in
1923. Used in the rear axle differential in rear drive automobiles, the gear allows the
drive shaft from the engine to intersect the rear axle several inches below the axle
centerline. Together with his invention of the even more complicated gear shaping
(cutting) machinery (still in use today) to manufacture Hypoid gears, it changed the
profile of all automobiles by 1931 (tall and boxy until 1930, six to eight inches lower
after that). Among some of his other inventions were: all types of vehicle steering
systems, constant velocity universal joints, positive displacement pumps, gauges and
finally, the nuclear reactor. He worked for corporations during the Second World War
and ended his career as a college professor.
The most interesting aspect of the Reactor patent is the extraordinary time between filing
and issuance. Considering that the reactor invention was germinating for at least a year
or two before filing, such a patent was far ahead of its time. This was not lost on the
Patent Office. Dad assumed that they couldn’t believe that an independent inventor,
outside the government driven system, could devise something that was the preserve of
academics and engineers working in a “secret” environment. The patent search was
likely complicated by security concerns, as many nuclear patent applications were held
up, or sequestered, to prevent disclosure to unfriendly or competitive foreign parties.
Dad believed he was on the FBI “watch” because of his work on nuclear technology (and
because of his very close family relationship to various people in the highest levels of the
post war Yugoslav government). He applied for a new passport just to see if he could get
one. He got it, but it didn’t change his mind about the “watch.”
Regards,
Bill
WHT/njtkm2
Oct. 24, 1967
N. J. TRBOJEVICH
3,349,002
NUCLEAR REACTOR
Filed March 28, 1958
FI 6.1. l3/ fl 5
FIG.2.
FIG.7.
LIQUID
GAS
VALVE
ROTARY
REACTOR
-4
J=±
POWER
0 AMBIENT 5
VOLUME
FI6.6.
FILTER
GAS
REFRIG.
■4 —
INVENTOR.
NIKOLA J. TRBO JEVIGH
BY
ATTORNEYS
United States Patent
Patented Oct. 24,. 1967
1
3,349,002
NUCLEAR REACTOR
Nikola J. Trbojevich, 8106 E. Jefferson Ave.,
Detroit, Mich. 48214
Filed Mar. 28, 1958, Ser. No. 724,713
4 Claims. (Cl. 176—21)
The invention relates to an improvement in nuclear
reactors which may be used in the propulsion of aircraft,
rockets and vehicles, for breeding and the like.
The novelty resides in the construction of a rotary and
fast reactor in which the energy is produced in a series
of discontinuous pulses, instead of continuously as in
prior designs. In order to accomplish this, the new reactor
comprises a rotor and a stator in which the fuel elements
are distributed in a plurality of discrete lumps or pads
along the adjoining circumferences of the said rotor and
stator.
The arrangement is such that whenever, as a result of
rotation, two such lumps arrive in a juxtaposite position,
a momentary chain process is established resulting in
what might be called an intense nuclear spark. The said
spark is promptly extinguished afterwards and the said
fuel lumps are cooled and scavenged by means of a
copious supply of compressed air or gas.
The object is to produce a momentary neutron and
power pulse of the greatest possible intensity and that,
without a damage to the fuel elements and the adjoining
mechanism.
Another object is to construct a nuclear turbojet upon
this principle.
Another object is to construct a combination in which a
turbojet may be actuated either by a nuclear or a conven¬
tional fuel, together or separately.
Another object is to construct a turbojet or rocket
which does not require oxygen or ordinary fuel for its
operation.
A further object is to devise a compact mechanism
comprising a compressor, a reactor and a turbine in which
all three elements are mounted in the same tube and are
rotatable by means of a single shaft.
Another object is to provide for the regulation or dis¬
continuation of the nuclear fission by means of the with¬
drawal of the elements in the stator.
In the broad sense, the object is to construct a rotary
reactor in which the momentary output is a function of
the angular displacement of the rotor with respect to the
stator and the duration of each pulse is dependent upon
the angular velocity of the rotor. By this means the out¬
put is . controlled in a relatively simple manner.
In the drawings:
FIGURE 1 is a geometrical diagram explanatory of the
theory of the new reactor.
FIGURE 2 is a portion of the stator showing the means
for adjustment and the disposition of the fertile mate¬
rial needed for breeding.
FIGURE 3 is a longitudinal cross section of the new
nuclear turbojet operable by a combination of nuclear
and conventional fuels.
FIGURE 4 is the section taken in the plane 4—4 of
FIGURE 3.
FIGURE 5 is an indicator diagram of the Brayton
cycles used in the turbojet.
FIGURE 6 is a schematic representation of a closed
cycle modification.
2
FIGURE 7 is another modification diagrammatically
representing the cycle used for the propulsion of rockets
and missiles.
The theory will be first explained.
In FIGURE 1 two highly enriched fissionable masses
11 and 12 are shown and indicated by cross-hatching.
The first said mass 11 is attached to a high-speed rotor
and moves tangentially with respect to a similar mass 12
affixed to the stator.
In the coordinate diagram the abscissa is taken as the
time t while the ordinate is the neutron flux /.
The said two masses, which are taken to be two similar
parallelepipeds for simplicity are so selected that each
parallelepiped is subcritical per se, but when they unite in
a single parallelepiped 12 and 11', the latter position be¬
ing indicated by the dotted lines in the axis 15 of the
diagram, they become critical and generate a divergent
chain process. The criticality is obtained by reducing the
circumference of the combined cross section of tire
parallelepipeds from 44+4 b to 4a+2fi, as indicated in
the diagram. The difference of 2 b in the combined cross
sections is selected to be just sufficient to raise the flux in
the axis 15 to a predetermined value of / max. In the flux
curve 14 the residual or minimum flux is indicated by the
symbol / min.
It is to be noted that this process is somewhat similar
to the well known process which is or was used for set¬
ting off atom bombs, except that the divergent chain
process is now extinguished practically as soon as it is
started, i.e., usually within 10 -5 sec.
The arrows 13 indicate the escaping neutrons from the
cross section ab of the parallelepipeds.
In FIGURE 2 a portion of the stator is diagrammati¬
cally shown. The fissionable mass 12, also marked with
PU (meaning plutonium) is longitudinally translated
along the axis 15 by means of a rack 16, plate 21 and
pinion 17. The object is to increase the width of the gap
e for the purpose of discontinuing the chain process when
so required. The said mass 12 is guided in a thin walled
holding member 18 which also supports a considerable
mass 20 of fertile material marked U-238 (uranium) at
its outer circumference for the purpose of breeding. In
airplanes and rockets I usually omit the said fertile mate¬
rial in order to reduce the weight of the apparatus and
relegate the operation of breeding the required concen¬
trated nuclear fuel to suitable ground installations.
In FIGURES 3 and 4 a complete nuclear turbojet ap¬
paratus is partly diagrammatically shown. The novelty
resides in the design of the reactor and the method of
operation wherefore the remaining elements, being well
known, will only be briefly described.
As is seen in FIGURE 3, the apparatus is built along
two mutually perpendicular and intersecting axes, viz,
the horizontal axis 22 which is also the axis of the outer
tube 23, the drive shaft 24, two bearings 26 and the tur¬
bine wheel 25, the latter being integrally formed with the
said shaft 24 and the perpendicular axis 15 which serves
as the main axis of the reactor and as such is coaxial with
the elevating rack 16, the plate 21, the bond 30, the fuel
pad 12, the hollow rectangular insert and holder 18 and
its integrally formed extensions 19. The said holder 18
is affixed to the outer tube 23 in a suitable rectangular
aperture formed in the wall of the latter by riveting or
welding the said two elements together.
The ambient air enters the device at the left end of
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
3 , 349,002
4
FIGURE 3, as shown by (he arrow 31, and is first slowed
down, then compressed, then heated, expanded in the tur¬
bine and finally, accelerated through the exhaust, i.e., the
operation exactly corresponds to the well known Brayton
cycle (see also FIGURE 4), which is used in ordinary
turbojets.
The compressor comprises a rotor keyed to the shaft
24, the said rotor consisting of a plurality of bladed disks
27 and intervening spacers 28. The stator is affixed to the
outer tube 23 and comprises a plurality of bladed rings,
each having a plurality of blades 29 adapted to occupy
the spacings provided by the said spacer disks 28. Only
one blade 29 is shown in the drawing, for clarity. It is fur¬
ther to be noted that the stator rings are split each in two
halves in order that they may be assembled over the
rotor.
The design of the new reactor having a vertical axis IS
will be readily understood from FIGURE 4. The rotor 32
is mounted upon the shaft 24, is secured in position by
means of the key 33 and rotates in the direction of the
arrow 34 in unison with the rotor of the compressor 27
and turbine 25. The said rotor usually has the form of a
flat and exactly balanced slab capable of housing two
similar fissionable masses 11 at its two ends where it is
bounded by the cylinder 34A. The adjustment of the outer
fissionable mass 12 by means of a rack 16 and pinion 17
was already explained in connection with FIGURE 2
while the flux curve 14 generated by the reactor was simi¬
larly shown in connection with FIGURE 1.
Adjacent to the reactor are two oil burner tubes 35.
These may be of an entirely conventional design and need
not be explained here in detail. However their purpose
and role in the makeup of this invention is significant. I
conceived the idea of a light and powerful source of nu¬
clear energy for the propulsion of aircraft which could
be constructed providing that the fission products could
be blown out into the ambient air in their nascent state,
as already mentioned in the preamble. Hence, the exhaust
gases are radioactive and ionized. Therefore, the reactor
cannot be very well operated until the plane has ascended
to a safe distance away from the airfield. For this reason,
this turbojet is designed to operate both on conventional
and nuclear fuels.
The turbine 25 is preceded by a stationary diffuser 36.
The end cone 37 is used for the purpose or gradually in¬
creasing the effective cross section of the tailpipe and thus
provides an orderly expansion of the gases issuing from
the said turbine.
The tube 38 in FIGURE 4 serves for the injection into
the reactor of neutron-rich light isotopes such as deuterium
(H 2 ) 'or tritium (H 3 ) for the purpose of boosting the pow¬
er by increasing the number of fissions. In this method it
is possible to do so because of the much higher peaks of
the flux curve 14, FIGURE 1, obtainable in this reactor
than could be obtained in the conventional or steady-flow
reactors.
In FIGURE 5 an indicator diagram characteristic of
the operation of the jet engine above described is shown.
The diagram is of the Brayton type as already stated and
corresponds to the dual drive shown in FIGURE 3, i.e.,
the incoming air can be heated either by nuclei or by
hydrocarbons or by both. Thus, in the pv diagram, the
first cycle relating to the nuclear modification and marked
NUCL starts from the point 0 having first an adiabatic
compression 0-1, the ram effect, and 1-2, the rise in the
compressor. The horizontal line 2-3 indicates heat induc¬
tion into the reactor, the said heat quantity adding to the
volume and velocity of the gases but not to their pressure.
From the points 3 to 4, the turbine adiabatically expands
the gases just sufficiently to produce enough torque to
operate the compressor and the reactor and no more.
From the points 4 to 5, the gas expands through the ex¬
haust tube down to the ambient and thus provides the jet
needed for the propulsion of the craft.
10
15
20
25
30
40
45
60
55
60
The hydrocarbon cycle marked H-C runs through the
points 5 3 6 7 8 and is quite similar to the one just de¬
scribed. The area of the combination of the two diagrams
0 2 6 8 represents the maximum power which the appa¬
ratus is capable of furnishing.
In FIGURE 6 a schematic diagram shows, as a modifi¬
cation, the application of the new reactor in a closed cycle.
The advantage of the closed cycle resides in the fact that
there is no radioactive gas issuing from the turbine into
the exhaust. For this reason, the modification is suitable
for the purposes of breeding, for power production, for
submarines, etc. The elements in the cycle, FIGURE 6,
are all so clearly marked that they will be clearly under¬
stood and no further explanation will be necessary.
In FIGURE 7, a very simple arrangement is shown ac¬
cording to which rockets and missiles may be propelled
by means of nuclear power through empty space.
It should be noted in this connection that rockets are
driven on the principle of equipartition of momenta and
inasmuch as the momentum is the product of mass and
velocity, it follows that energy alone is insufficient to pro¬
pel a rocket in an empty space. In FIGURE 7 the matter
to be backwardly ejected from the rocket is carried in the
tank marked “Liquid Gas.” A too rapid expansion of this
gas is prevented by means of a rotating turbine wheel
which also furnished the required power to the rotor of
the reactor while the latter furnishes the heat energy re¬
quired for the acceleration of the gas and the power lost
in the turbine.
What I claim as my invention is:
1. A reactor comprising a cylindrical core rotatable
about an axis, an outer stationary member tangential of
the said core and two fissionable and subcritical masses
respectively affixed to the said core and member and
so selected that when the first said mass tangentially by¬
passes the second said mass in its proximity, the com¬
bined masses become momentarily hypercritical and mo¬
mentarily generate a divergent fission chain reaction and in
which the mass in the outer member comprises a slide
and means for bodily moving the said mass in the said
slide in a direction perpendicular to the said axis, for the
purpose of adjustment.
2. A reactor comprising a cylindrical core rotatable
about an axis, a hollow cylindrical member enveloping
the said core, a plurality of fissionable masses discretely
distributed along the adjoining circumferences of the said
core and member, and means for moving the masses in
the said enveloping member in a direction perpendicular
to the said axis.
3. In a reactor, a combination of a rotor with a stator
in which the said two members comprise a plurality of dis¬
crete fissionable units, in which the units in the said stator
are outwardly retracted to provide a clearance, in which
the stator is provided with means for injecting into the
rotor additional neutron-rich material of the class consist¬
ing of deuterium and tritium and in which the speed of
rotation of the said rotor is predetermined to produce a
series of neutron pulses of the required magnitude and
frequency.
4. A reactor according to claim 3 in which the units are
over fifty percent enriched and require no moderator for
their proper functioning.
65
70
75
References Cited
UNITED
STATES PATENTS
2,812,304
11/1957
Wheeler__ _ —
FOREIGN PATENTS
1,137,047
1/1957
France.
1,007,442
5/1957
Germany.
614,386
12/1948
Great Britain.
(Other references on following page)
OTHER REFERENCES
Glastone, Principles of Nuclear Reactor Engineering,
D. van Nostrand Co., Inc., New York (1955), pp. 29, 36
and 738.
Murray II, Nuclear Reactor Physics, 1957, p. 5, Pren¬
tice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Murray I, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 1954,
pp. 96-99 and 349-366, Prentice-Hall, New York, N.Y.
6
“Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Program,” U.S. Govern¬
ment Printing Office, July 23, 1959, p. 361.
REUBEN EPSTEIN, Primary Examiner.
5 ROGER L. CAMPBELL, LEON D. ROSDOL,
Examiners.
H. II. BRADLEY, S. F. STONE, R. C. LYNE,
Assistant Examiners.
ON RADIANT MATTER*
By WILLIAM CROOKES, F. R. S.
I.
T O throw light on tho title of this lecture I must go back more than
sixty years—to 1816. Faraday, then a mere student and ardent
experimentalist, was twenty-four years old, and at this early period of
his career he delivered a series of lectures on the general properties of
matter, and one of them bore the remarkable title, “ On Radiant Mat¬
ter.” The great philosopher’s notes of this lecture are to be found in
Dr. Bence Jones’s “ Life and Letters of Faraday,” and I will here
quote a passage in which he fast employs the expression radiant
matter:
If we conceive a change as far beyond vaporization as that is above fluidity,
and then take into account also the proportional increased extent of alteration
as the changes rise, we shall perhaps, if we can form any conception at all, not
fall far short of radiant, matter; and as in the last conversion many qualities
were lost, so here also many more would disappear.
Faraday was evidently engrossed with this far-reaching speculation,
for three years later—in 1819—we find him bringing fresb evidence
and argument to strengthen his startling hypothesis. His notes are
now more extended, and they show that in the intervening three years
he had thought much and deeply on this higher form of matter. lie
first points out that matter may be classed into four states—solid,
liquid, gaseous, and radiant—these modifications depending upon dif¬
ferences in their several essential properties. lie admits that the ex¬
istence of radiant matter is as yet unproved, and then proceeds, in a
series of ingenious analogical arguments, to show the probability of ils
existence.f
" A lecture delivered before the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
at Sheffield, Friday, August 22, 1879.
f I may now notice a curious progression in physical properties accompanying changes
of form, and which is perhaps sufficient to induce, in the inventive and sanguine philoso-
ON RADIANT MATTER.
15
able to which I am now about to call your attention. So distinct are
these phenomena from anything which occurs in air or gas at the ordi¬
nary tension, that we arc led to assume that we are here brought face
to face with matter in a fourth state or condition, a condition as far
removed from the state of gas as a gas is from a liquid.
Mean Free Path — Radiant Matter. — I have long believed that a
well-known appearance observed in vacuum-tubes is closely related to
the phenomena of the mean free path of the molecules. When tin-
negative pole is examined while the discharge from an induction coil
is passing through an exhausted tube, a dark space is seen to surround
it. This dark space is found to increase and diminish as the vacuum
is varied, in the same way that the mean free path of the molecules
lengthens and contracts. As the one is perceived by the mind’s eye
to get greater, so the other is seen by the bodily eye to increase iii
size ; and, if the vacuum is insufficient to permit much play of tin-
molecules before they enter into collision, the passage of electricity
shows that the “ dark space ” has shrunk to small dimensions. We
naturally infer that the dark space is the mean free path of the mole¬
cules of the residual gas, an inference confirmed by experiment.
I will endeavor to render this “ dark space ” visible to all present.
Here is a tube (Fig. 1), having a pole in the center in the form of a
i’io 1.
metal disk, and other poles at each end. The center pole is made neg¬
ative, and the two end poles connected together are made the positive
terminal. The dark space will bo in the center. When the exhaus¬
tion is not very great, the dark space extends only a little on each side
of the negative pole in the center. When the exhaustion is good, as
in the tube before you, and I turn on the coil, the dark space is seen
to extend for about an inch on each side of the pole.
Here, then, wo see the induction-spark actually illuminating the
lines of molecular pressure caused by the excitement of the negative
pole. The thickness of this dark space is the measure of the mean free
ON RADIANT MATTER.
1
Radiant Matter exerts Powerful Phosphor ogenic Action where
strikes . — I have mentioned that the radiant matter within the dark
space excites luminosity where its velocity is arrested by residual ga
outside the dark space. But if no residual gas is left, the molecule
will have their velocity arrested by the sides of the glass; and here vn
come to the first and one of the most noteworthy properties of radiant
matter discharged from the negative pole — its power of exciting phos¬
phorescence when it strikes against solid matter. The number of
bodies which respond luminously to this molecular bombardment i
very great, and the resulting colors are of every variety. Glass, for
instance, is highly phosphorescent when exposed to a stream of radian!
matter. Here (Fig. 2) are throe bulbs composed of different glas :
one is uranium glass (a), which phosphoresces of a dark-green color ;
another is English glass (b), which phosphoresces of a blue color ; and
the third (a) is soft German glass — of which most of the apparatus
before you is made — which phosphoresces of a bright apple-green.
My earlier experiments were almost entirely carried on by the aid
of the phosphorescence which glass takes up when it is under the influ
cnee of the radiant discharge ; but many other substances possess this
Fro. 3.
phosphorescent power in a still higher degree than glass. For in
stance, here is some of the luminous sulphide of calcium prepared ac¬
cording to M. Ed. Becqucrol’s description. When the sulphide is ex¬
posed to light—even candle-light — it phosphoresces for hours with a
bluish-white color. It is, however, much more strongly phospho¬
rescent to the molecular discharge in a good vacuum, as you will see
when I pass the discharge through this tube,
voi. xvi. — 2
ON RADIANT MATTER. 19
intense red line, a little below tbe fixed line B in the spectrum, having
a wave-length of about 0,895. There is a continuous spectrum begin
ning at about B, and a few fainter lines beyond it, but they are so faint
in comparison with this red line that they maybe neglected. This lin<-
is easily seen by examining with a small pocket spectroscope the light
reflected from a good ruby.
There is one particular degree of exhaustion more favorable than
any other for tho development of the properties of radiant matter
which are now under examination. Roughly speaking it may be pul
at the millionth of an atmosphere.* At this degree of exhaustion lie
phosphorescence is very strong, and after that it begins to diminish
until the spark refuses to pass, f
I have here a tube, Fig. 5, which will serve to illustrate the de¬
pendence of the phosphorescence of the glass on the degree of exbaus
10 millionth of an atmosphere = 0 00076 mill'mi.
1315-789 millionths of uu atmosphere = 1-0 inillim.
1,000,000- “ “ “ = 760-0 millims.
“ “ “ " =1 atmosphere.
f Nearly a hundred years ago, Mr, William Morgan communicated to the Royal Society
a paper entitled “ Electrical Experiments made to ascertain the Non-conducting I’owei of
a Perfect Vacuum," etc. The following extracts from this paper, which was published
iu tho Philosophical Transactions” for 1785 (vol. lxxv., p. 272), will be read with in¬
terest :
A mercurial gage about fifteen inches long, carefully and accurately boiled til] every par¬
ticle of air was expelled from the inside, was coated witli tin-foil five inches down fioni
its sealed end, and being inverted into mercury through a perforation iu the brass cap
which covered the mouth of the cistern, the whole was cemented together, and the air
was exhausted from the inside of the cistern, througli a valve in the brass cap, which,
producing a perfect vacuum in the gage, formed an instrument peculiarly well adapted
for experiments of this kind. Things being thus adjusted (a small wire having been pre¬
viously fixed on the inside of the cistern to form a communication between the btiss cap
and the mercury, into which the gage was inverted), the coated end was applied to the
conductor of an electrical machine, and, notwithstanding every effort, neither the smallest
ray of light, nor the slightest charge, could ever be procured in tills exhausted gage.
If the mercury in tiie gage be imperfectly boiled, the experiment will not succeed ;
but the color of the electric light, which in air rarefied by au exhauster is ulways violet or
purple, appears in this case of a beautiful green, and, what is very curious, the degree of
tiie air's rarefaction may bo nearly determined by this means; for I have known instances,
during the course of these experiments, where a small particle of air having found its
wav into the lube, tiie electric light became visible, and as usual of a green color ; but
tint charge being often repeated, tiie gage lias at length cracked at its scaled end, and iu
consequence the external air, by being admitted into tiie inside, lias gradually produced
a change iu tho electric light from green to blue, from blue to indigo, and so on to violet
anil purple, till the medium lias at length become so dense as no longer to boa conductor
Of electricity. I think there can bo little doubt, from tiie above experiments, of the non
conducting power of a perfect vacuum.
This seems to provo that there is n limit even in the rarefaction of air, which sets
bounds to its conducting power j or, in oilier words, that tiie particles of air may lie so
fur separated from each oilier as no longer to tie able to transmit tiie electric fluid ; that
if they arc brought, within a certain ilistunco of each other, their conducting power begins,
and continually increases till their approach also arrives at its limit.
ON RADIANT MATTER.
21
gas follows all the convolutions into which skillful glass-blowers can
manage to twist the glass. The negative pole being at one end and
the positive pole at the other, the luminous phenomena seem to de¬
pend more on the positive than on the negative at the ordinary exhaus
Fro. 0.
(ion hitherto used to get the best phenomena of vacuum-tubes. But
at a very high exhaustion the phenomena noticed in ordinary vacuum
tallies when the induction-spark passes through them—an appearance
of cloudy luminosity and of stratifications — disappear entirely. No
cloud or fog whatever is seen in the body of the tube, and with such
a vacuum as I am working with in these experiments, the only light
Observed is that from the phosphorescent surface of the glass. 1 have
here two bulbs (Fig. 7), alike in shape and position of poles, the only
difference being that one is at an exhaustion equal to a few millimetres
of mercury- -such a moderate exhaustion as will give the ordinary lu¬
minous phenomena—while the other is exhausted to about the millionth
of an atmosphere. I will first, connect the moderately exhausted bulb
(A) with the induction-coil, and retaining the polo at one side (a) al
wavs negative, 1 will put the positive wire successively to the other
poles with which the bulb is furnished. You see that as I change the
position of the positive pole, the line of violet light joining the two
poles changes, the electric current always choosing the shortest path
between the two poles, and moving about the bulb as I alter the posi
tion of the wires.
This, then, is the kind of phenomenon we *get in ordinary exhaus
ON RADIANT MATTER.
-I
If, instead of a flat disk, a hemi-cylinder is used for the negative
polo, the matter still radiates normal to its surface. The tube before
you (Fig. 8) illustrates this property. It
contains, as a negative pole, a hemi-cyl¬
inder (a) of polished aluminium. This
is connected with a fine copper wire, b,
ending at the platinum terminal, c. At
the upper end of the tube is another ter¬
minal, (l. The induction-coil is connect¬
ed so that the hemi-cylinder is negative
and the upper pole positive, and when
exhausted to a sufficient extent the pro¬
jection of the molecular rays to a focus
is very beautifully shown. The rays of
matter being driven from the hemi-cyl¬
inder in a direction normal to its sur¬
face, come to a focus and then diverge,
tracing their path in brilliant green phos¬
phorescence on the surface of the glass.
Instead of receiving the molecular
rays on the glass, I will show you another
tube in which the focus falls on a phos¬
phorescent screen. See how brilliantly
the lines of discharge shine out, and
how intensely the focal point is illumi¬
nated, lighting up the table.
Radiant Matter when intercepted by Solid Matter casts a Shadow.
—Radiant matter comes from the pole in straight lines, and does not
merely permeate till parts of the tube and fill it with light, as would
I'm. a
be the case were the exhaustion less good. Where there is nothing in
the way the rays strike the screen and produce phosphorescence, and
where solid matter intervenes they are obstructed by it, and a shadow
ON RADIANT MATTER *
Bt WILLIAM CKOOKES, F. B. S.
n.
Radiant Matter exerts Strong Mechanical Action inhere it strikes.
W E have seen, from the sharpness of the molecular shadows, that
radiant matter is arrested by solid matter placed in its path.
If this solid body is easily moved, the impact of the molecules will
reveal itself in strong mechanical action. Mr. Gimingham has con¬
structed for me an ingenious piece of apparatus which, when placed in
the electric lantern, will render this mechanical action visible to all
present. It consists of a highly-exhausted glass tube (Fig. 11), hav-
* A lecture delivered before the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
at Sheffield, Friday, August 22, 1879.
ON RADIANT MATTER.
>59
For these mechanical effects the exhaustion need not be so high as
when phosphorescence is produced. The best pressure for this elec¬
trical radiometer is a little beyond that at which the dark space round
the negative pole extends to the sides of the glass bulb. When the
pressure is only a few millimetres of mercury, on passing the induction-
current a halo of velvety violet light forms on the metallic side of the
vanes, the mica side remaining dark, As the pressure diminishes, a
dark space is seen to separate the violet halo from the metal. At a
pressure of half a millimetre this dark space extends to the glass, and
rotation commences. On continuing the exhaustion the dark span
further widens out and appears to flatten itself against the glass, when
the rotation becomes very rapid.
Here is another piece of apparatus (Fig. 13) which illustrates the
mechanical force of the radiant matter from the negative pole. A
stem (a) carries a needle-point in which revolves a light mica fly (b b).
The fly consists of four square vanes of thin, clear mica, supported on
light aluminium arms, and in the center is a small glass cap, which
rests on the needle-point. The vanes arc inclined at an angle of 4.V
to the horizontal plane. Below the fly is a ring of fine platinum wire
(c c), the ends of which pass through the glass at <1 cl. An aluminium
terminal (e) is sealed in at the top of the tube, and the whole is ex¬
hausted to a very high point.
By means of the electric lantern I project an image of the vanes
on the screen. Wires from the induction-coil are attached, so that
the platinum ring is made the negative pole, the aluminium wi re (e)
being positive. Instantly, owing to the projection of radiant matter
from the platinum ring, the vanes rotate with extreme velocity. Thus
far the apparatus has shown nothing more than the previous experi¬
ments have prepared us to expect; but observe what now happens.
I disconnect the induction-coil altogether, and conneot the two ends
of the platinum wire with a small galvanic battery : this makes the
ring g c red-hot, and under this influence you see that the vanes spin
as fast as they did when the induction-coil was at work.
Here, then, is another most important fact. Radiant matter in
these high vacua is not only excited by the negative pole of an induc¬
tion-coil, but a hot wire will set it in motion with force sufficient to
drive round the sloping vanes.
Radiant Matter is deflected by a Magnet, — I now pass to an¬
other property of radiant matter. This long glass tube (Fig. 14) is
very highly exhausted ; it has a negative pole at one end (a) and a
long phosphorescent screen (b, o) down the center of the tube. In
front of the negative pole is a plate of mica (5, d) with a hole (c) in
it, and the result is, when I turn on the current, a line of phosphores¬
cent light (e,f) is projected along the whole length of the tube. I
now place beneath the tube a powerful horseshoe magnet: observe
how the lino of light (e, g) becomes curved under the magnetic influ-
ON RADIANT MATTER.
161
flight from one end of the tube to the other. I heat the caustic pot¬
ash with a spirit-lamp and so throw' in a trace more gas. Instantly
the stream of radiant matter responds. Its velocity is impeded, the
magnetism has longer time on which to act on the individual mole ¬
cules, the trajectory gets more and more curved, until, instead of
shooting nearly to the end of the tube, my molecular bullets fall to
the bottom before they have got more than half w r ay.
It is of great interest to ascertain w'hether the law governing the
magnetic deflection of the trajectory of radiant matter is the same as
has been found to hold good at a low'er vacuum. The experiments 1
have just show si you w'ere with a very high vacuum. Here is a tube
with a low vacuum (Fig. 16). When I turn on the induction-spark, it
Fig 1(1
passes as a narrow line of violet light joining the two poles. Under¬
neath I have a pow'erful electro-magnet. I make contact with the
magnet, and the line of light dips in the center toward the magnet. I
reverse the poles, and the lino is driven up to the top of the tube.
Notice the difference between the two phenomena. Here the action is
temporary. The dip takes place under the magnetic influence; tfle
line of discharge then rises and pursues its path to the positive pole.
In the high exhaustion, however, after the stream of radiant matter
had dipped to the magnet it did not recover itself, but continued its
path in the altered direction.
By means of this little wheel, skillfully constructed by Mr. Giming-
ham, I am able to show the magnetic deflection in the electric lantern.
The apparatus is shown in this diagram (Fig. 17). The negative pole
(n, b) is in the form of a very shallow cup. In front of the cup is a
mica screen (c, d), wide enough to intercept the radiant matter coming
from the negative polo. Behind this screen is a mica wheel (e,/)
with a series of vanes, making a sort of paddle-wheel. So arranged,
the molecular rays from the pole a b will bo cut off from the wheel,
and will not produco any movement. I now' put a magnet ,'/, over the
t ube, so as to deflect the stream over or under the obstacle c d, and the
result will be rapid motion in one or the other direction, according to
the way the magnet is turned. I throw the image of the apparatus on
the screen. The spiral lines painted on the wheel show w'hich way it
rot. xvi.—it
(
ON RADIANT MATTER.
163
If the streams of radiant matter carry an electric current, they will
act like two parallel conducting wires and attract one another ; but if
they are simply built up of negatively electrified molecules, they will
repel each other.
I will first connect the upper negative polo (a) with the coil, and
you see the ray shooting along the lino cl, f. I now bring the lower
negative pole (b) into play, and another line (e, I i) darts along the
screen. But notice the way the first line behaves : it jumps up from
its first position, df to d g, showing that it is repelled, and if time
permitted I could show you that the lower ray is also deflected from
its normal direction : therefore the two parallel streams of radiant
matter exert mutual repulsion, acting not like current carriers, but
merely as similarly electrified bodies.
Radiant Matter produces Heat when its Motion is arrested. —Dur¬
ing these experiments another property of radiant matter has made
itself evident, although I have not yet drawn attention to it. The
glass gets very warm where the green phosphorescence is strongest.
The molecular focus on the tube, which we saw earlier in the evening
(Fig. 8), is intensely hot, and I have prepared an apparatus by which
this heat at the focus can be rendered apparent to all present.
I have here a small tube (Fig. 19, a) with a cup-shaped negative
pole. This cup projects the rays to a focus
in the middle of the tube. At the side of
the tube is a small electro-magnet, which I
can sot in action by touching a key, and
the focus is then drawn to the side of the
glass tube (Fig. 19, b.) To show the first
action of the heat, I have coated the tube
with wax. I will put the apparatus in
front of the electric lantern (Fig. 20, d),
and throw a magnified image of the tube
on the screen. The coil is now at work,
and the focus of molecular rays is projected
along the tube. I turn the magnetism on,
C* - - - -o- - -7 J
and draw the fo
The first tiling you see is a small circu¬
lar patch melted in the coating of wax.
The glass'soon begins to disintegrate, and
cracks are shooting starwise from the cen¬
ter of heat. The glass is softening. Now the atmospheric pressure
forces it in, and now it melts. A hole (e) is perforated in the middle,
the air rushes in, and the experiment is at an end.
I can render this focal heat more evident if I allow it to play on a
piece of metal. This bulb (Fig. 21) is furnished with a negative pole in
the form of a cup («). The rays will therefore be projected to a focus
on a piece of iridio platinum (b) supported in the center of the bulb.
(
ON RADIANT MATTER.
165
the metal is now white-hot. I increase the intensity of the spark. The
iridio-platiuum glows with almost insupportable brilliancy, and at last
melts.
The Chemistry of Radiant Matter . —
As might be expected, the chemical dis¬
tinctions between one kind of radiant mat¬
ter and another at these high exhaustions
are difficult to recognize. The physical
properties I have been elucidating seem
to be common to all matter at this low
density. Whether the gas originally un¬
der experiment be hydrogen, carbonic acid,
or atmospheric air, the phenomena of phos¬
phorescence, shadows, magnetic deflection,
etc., are identical, only they commence at
different pressures. Other facts, however,
show that at this low density the mole¬
cules retain their chemical characteristics.
Thus by introducing into the tubes appro¬
priate absorbents of residual gas, I can see
that chemical attraction goes on long after
the attenuation has reached the best stage
for showing the phenomena now under
illustration, and I am able by this means to
carry the exhaustion to much higher de¬
grees than I can get by mere pumping. Working with aqueous vapor,
I can use phosphoric anhydride as an absorbent; with carbonic acid,
potash ; with hydrogen, palladium ; and with oxygen, carbon, and
then potash. The highest vacuum I have yet succeeded in obtaining
has been the j-j-.o aV.Tnnr !ln atmosphere, a degree which may be bet¬
ter understood if I say that it corresponds to about the hundredth of
an inch in a barometric column three miles high.
It may bo objected that it is hardly consistent to attach primary
importance to the presence of matter, when I have taken extraordinary
pains to remove as much matter as possible from these bulbs and these
tubes, and have succeeded so far as to leave only about the one mil¬
lionth of an atmosphere in them. At its ordinary pressure the atmos¬
phere is not very dense, and its recognition as a constituent of the
world of matter is quite a modern notion. It would seem that, when
divided by a million, so little matter will necessarily be left that we
may justifiably neglect the trifling residue, and apply the term vacuum
to space from which the air has been so nearly removed. To do so,
however, would be a great error, attributable to our limited faculties
being unable to grasp high numbers. It is generally taken for granted
that when a number is divided by a million the quotient must neces-
fore you leave this room? The hole being unaltered iu size, the num¬
ber of molecules undiminished, this apparent paradox can only be
explained by again supposing the size of the molecules to be dimin¬
ished almost infinitely — so that, instead of entering at the rate of one
hundred millions every second, they troop in at a rate of something
like three hundred trillions a second ! I have done the sum, but tig-
tires when they mount so high cease to have any meaning, and such
calculations are as futile as trying to count the drops in the ocean.
In studying this fourth state of matter we seem, at length, to have
within our grasp and obedient to our control the little indivisible par¬
ticles which, with good warrant, are supposed to constitute the physi¬
cal basis of the universe. We have seen that, in some of its proper
ties, radiant matter is as material as this table, while in other properties
it almost assumes the character of radiant energy. We have actually
touched the border-land where matter and force seem to merge into
one another, the shadowy realm between known and unknown, which
for me has always had peculiar temptations. I venture to think that
the greatest scientific problems of the future will find their solution in
this border-land, and even beyond ; here, it seems to me, lie ultimate
realities, subtile, far-reaching, wonderful.
“ Yet all these were, when no man did them know,
Yet have from wisest ages hidden beene;
And later times thinges moro unknowne shall show.
Why then should witlesse man so much misweene,
That nothing is, but that which ho hath scene ? ”
SPECIAL TECHNIQUE .IJOR THE
SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT 0 r
STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTIONS
•I (STXCP THROAT")
Common "Colo*"
iHRLutNiA' ("plu”) FREDERICK FINCH STRONG, M, D.
SIHU* INFECTION*
ache, iMRinioo 6120 Fountain avenue
bronchitii, etc. Hollywood, Calif.
OFFICE TREATMENT OfiLY.'
FOR APPOINTMENTS PEONS'
HI 8041
PHOHC between I and 3 p,H.
or between e and 7 p.W.
Deer Mr Strickfaden-
Nov Slj$51
'I tried in vain to get you on the phone but
no on.e answered. Hope you are still well and everything is going
finely with you.
I am now in my eightieth year and still taking
patients, our rent has been raised and we will be compelled to move
if we can find a cheaper place. I shall hate it as we have been hexe.
for thirteen years and it had grown to seem like home. My five"
meter ultra short wave (which I call my "VITAL N RMALIZER) Do you
know anyone with High Blood-pressure.Thirty two years ago X was
running a systolic of over Two hundred. The Met. Life Co rates
High Blood pressure as PUBLIC ENEMY NOlit kills 600,000 annually
(more than Cancer and tuberculosis combined I am now running, a
norm 1 pressure of about 185 and am feeling very well dispite my
age. Are you still doing ELECTKICKS? I have all my tesla apparatus
and dont know what to do with it. Do you know anyone who would take it
off my hands. We are •sadly- in need of money and T would sell .all my
H-F apparatus for fifty dollars. You have no doubt seen the million
volt coil which I gave to the Planetarium. Can you not come up and
look over my High-frequency "JUNK-PILE". Today Jose Iturbe came.in
and played for us. He is going to try to sell my piano forme He says I
IS A VERY GOOD PIANO" I also want to sell my harp We shallbe very glad
to see you again.. If this reaches you please'call me up
your old High-frequency friend
FORM 10 6M 10-21
BRANCHES
OES MOINES,' IOWA.
L05 ANGELES,CAL.
MONTREAL,CAN.
LEESBURG,VA.
NEW YORK, N.Y.
PHILADELPHIA, PA.
5 ElectroTherapeutic Equipment
//ome Office 2335-2343 Wabansia Ave.
( j&hic agp
November 8, 1921.
To the Trade:-
On November 10th, 1921, prices on Fisober
Dental X-ray Outfits will be reduced to tbe following
schedules
Gat. No. 540 Flscber No. 1 Dental X-ray Unit, with Coolldge
Tube, Shield, Tube Support Arm, Time Switch, Meter and a
supply of Films, Developing Gbemioals, etc., $600.00
Gat. No. 543 Fischer Dental X-ray Unit “da luxe", with
Coolldge Tube, Shield, all necessary Meters, Controls, etc.,
with a ’set of Dark Hoorn Supplies & Accessories, $800.00
Gat. No. 816 Fischer Type "R B X-ray Unit, with Tube Support
attached; constructed to operate the straight Radiator
Coolldge Tube at from 2J to 5-inch gap at 10 M. A.; with
Coolldge Tube, Shield, Meters, Hand Switch on Connecting
Cable, and Cord Reels. $650.00
Cat, No. 534 Fischer 2-A Interrupterless X-ray Transformer,
with Rheostatic Control, without Accessories, $500.00
Cat. No. 535 Fischer 2-A Interrupterless X-ray Transformer,
with 7-lnch Gas Tube, Tube Stand, Dental Cone, Fluoroscope
Plate Box and all necessary Dark Room Paraphernalia $650.00
Cat. No. 805 Fischer 2-B Interrupterless X-ray Transformer,
with Auto Transformer Control, Milli-amper© Meter, Spark
Meter. Polarity Indicator, etc., but without Accessories.
* $645.00
Cat. No. 800 Fischer 2-B Interrupterless X-ray Transformer,
complete with all necessary Accessories for proper operation.
Including Coolldge Tube, Tube Stand, Plate Chest, Fluoro¬
scope, Overhead Wiring, Filament Transformer and Controller,
and a large assortment of Plates, Films and Dark Room
material. $1000,00
Cat. No, 509, the original Fischer "H5" Dental X-ray Unit,
in solid mahogany cabinet, without Accessories, $250.00
Cat. No. 510, Fischer "H5" Dental X-ray Unit, with Gas Tube,
Tube Stand. Films, Plates and all necessary Developing Sup-
$360.00
- 2 -
The discount to the trade on all of the
foregoing, is 40<f., with the exception of the Goolidge
Tube, where the discount is to be figured 10^ from the
face of the invoice, with an additional 10^ for payment
within ten days from date of invoice.
After November 15th, there will be no In¬
stalling Fee deducted from Fischer invoices. Bills as
rendered will be net, and installation will be made in
every instance, where desired, at actual cost. We have,
to-day, Service Stations spread liberally throughout the
country, and are in excellent position to tahe care of
sales, installations or trouble service, better than ever
before.
We thank you for your valued patronage in the
past, and solicit a greater percentage for the future.
Very truly yours,
H. G. FISCHEE & CO. INC,
HTF*EW
REPRESENTATIVES
IN ALL
PRINCIPAL CITIES
AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES
11. IS . gk fg CTHiH i Up C«*.
MANUFACTURERS
GENERAL OFFICE 2323-2345 WABANSIA AVE.
CmciAca
May S, 1S4Q.
CABLE ADDRESS
“FISCHERCO”
TELEPHONE
ARMlTAGE 0322
Dr £ F. J. Moeninghoff,
Monett, Missouri.
Dear Dr. Moeninghoff:
We have been requested by our Mr. Charles 0. Porter
to give you a comparison on the McIntosh Sinustat and the Fischer
Model "J”, between the following currents:
McIntosh Straight Galvanic Smooth - the equivalent is obtained on
the Model "J" by placing your dials on points 1 and 1.
McIntosh Galvanic Yfave Uni-Directional - the equivalent is obtained
on the Model "J” by placing your dials on 2 and 0.
McIntosh Galvanic Wave Smooth - the equivalent is obtained on the
Model "J" by placing your dials on 4 and 1.
Galvanic Wave Rough - This appears to be a rectified AC current, but
unfiltered. We do not have this current on our machine.
320 cycle Sinusoidal - the equivalent is obtained on the Model "J"
by placing your dials on 2 and 1.
320 cycle Sinusoidal Wave - The equivalent is obtained by placing
the dials on the Model "J" on 4 and 2.
If we can be of further service advise us.
C o rdially your s,
H. G. FISCHER & CO.
PFMsFZ.
REPRESENTATIVES
IN ALL
PRINCIPAL CITIES
AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES
GENERAL OFFICE 2323-2345 WABANSIA AVE.
C m cAia«i» 47C 1 ml®
CABLE ADDRESS
"FISCHERCO"
TELEPHONE
ARMiTAGE 0321
■]
September 23, 1946
F. J. Moennighoff, M.D.
Monett, Missouri
Dear Dr. Moennighoffr
It has just been discovered, Dr. Moenninghoff, that
we failed to send you the technic chart and the
instructions for the operation and maintenance of your
model "J" galvanic and contractile currents generator.
We believe that the enclosed instructions will be of
assistance to you.
You had asked if we have a service man in your
territory. Yes, we do. Mr. G. H. Richardson, 405
South McGuire, Warrensburg, Missouri represents us
in your territory.
Yours very truly.
MAW spwr
H. G.
FISCHER &■ CO.
M.
A* White
REPRESENTATIVES
IN ALL
PRINCIPAL CITIES
AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES
MLfiL Wm scum H?
m
MANUFACTURERS
X-Ray AvnE lectro mSs; Equifment
GENERAL OFFICE 2323-2345 WABANSIA AVE.
Cmmeo
February 20, 1941
CABLE ADDRESS
“FISCHERCO”
TELEPHONE
ARMITAGE 0322
Dear Doctors
We are very happy to enclose with this letter
another group of abstracts covering the uses of galvanic
and contractile currents,
It is our purpose to provide these abstracts,
for our friends and customers, as new reports and articles
appear in the medical press. We shall appreciate any com»
ments you care to make.
Sincerely yours,
G. FISCHER & COMPANY.
^"7
Vice President
M.©»I&s«5M«acfc €«*
m
MANUFACTURERS
GENERAL OFFICE AND FACTORY 9451-9491 W. BELMONT AVE
REPRESENTATIVES
IN AL - L WmMSMIuWW PAIKtlu.
PRINCIPAL CITIES
AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES
February 6, 1951
CABLE ADDRESS
“FISCHERCO”
TELEPHONES
FRANKLIN PARK,
GLADSTONE 5-0612
CHICAGO.
TUxedo 9-0400
J. Paul Spanogle, D. 0.
L3 Lincoln Way, W.
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania
Dear Doctor Spanogle:
%ank you for your recent request for a copy of our Manual
of Simplified X-ray Technic.
We are pleased to send you herewith a copy of our Manual
and we hope you will find it to be of some interest and
value to you in your work.
If we may be of any further service to you at any time
please do not hesitate to call upon us.
Cordially yours,
H. G. FISCHER & CO.
Field Service Department
KEMsbc
enc.
}\f^ M
?iUu^ &Jr
&' i dx'<
Aa-
jj^dp
The revolver described in your recent letter is the .38 Victory Model. This model was introduced
in 1942 and manufactured until 1945. Total production was 850,000 units. It was produced in
barrel lengths of 2", 4" and 5", in both .38 Special and .38 S&W calibers.
The Victory Model was supplied to all branches of the U. S. Armed Services in the .38 Special
caliber. Guns produced for England, Canada, and other allies were chambered for the .38 S&W
cartridge and were supplied under the Lend Lease Program. These revolvers since they were on
loan to the Allied Forces were United States.property and so marked on the revolvers.
A small group of the Victory Models was sold to commercial companies and Police Agencies
during the war time production. The orders for commercial sales were submitted to the United
States Governments Defense Supply Corporation which would then issue sales orders to Smith &
Wesson directing them to sell to the various listed companies. The Defense Supply Corporation
ordered revolvers were shipped without U.S. or other military markings.
Production of this model with the prefix V began on January 1, 1942, and continued through
V750.000. All firearms produced after this carry the prefix SV which signifies the installation of
a new hammer block.
Generally, the Victory Model was finished in a rough military finish. A limited quantity in this
inis i was sold to private firms for security use. These firearms were void of military markings
and were released only under government orders.
.38 Victory Model
Page 2
We have researched your Smith & Wesson .38 Victory Model, United States Defense Supply
Corporation Contract, Commercial Sales Variation, caliber .38 S&W Special, revolver in
company records which indicate that your handgun, with serial number V58685 was shipped
from our factory on August 4, 1942, and delivered to H. G. Frischer & Co., Chicago, IL. The
records indicate that this revolver was shipped with a 4 inch barrel, military midnight black
finish, butt swivel, and smooth walnut grips.
We trust that the information furnished will be helpful and of interest.
Sincerely,
SMITH & WESSON
(4? “3
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ULTRA-VIOLET . . . INFRA
RED . . . CARBON ARC Lamps
MERCURY QUARTZ
FISCHER “Cold” Mercury Arc
Lamps are available in two basic
types — for general and for ori-
ficial irradiation. Character of ra¬
diation same in both types. All
lamps have precision control, en¬
abling operator to deliver rays at
low, medium or high intensity. A
very important characteristic of
these lamps is the intensity of the
rays at about 2536A. For general
use, the FISCHER Combination
Lamp (No. 3980), equipped with
both grid type and orificial type
burners, is recommended. Other
models available.
INFRA RED
This FISCH¬
ER Infra Red
Generator
made with
singly heat-
jpg element.
Easily ad-,
j u s t a b 1 e to
any position.
Eleven - inch
reflector. Of.
fers every
service of in¬
fra red radia¬
tion.
CARBON ARC
The FISCHER Model
"O” Twin Carbon Arc
Lamp delivers a s
much ultra violet, vis¬
ible, and infra red ra¬
diation as any carbon
arc lamp on the mar¬
ket, operating on a
regular lighting cir¬
cuit. Operates equally
well on direct or al¬
ternating current. Lo¬
calizing cones avail¬
able when desired.
Sign and Mail This Card Today
Please send full information — no obligation — regarding
the lamp I have checked below.
□ FISCHER “Cold” Mercury Arc Lamp
□ FISCHER Infra Red Generator
□ FISCHER Model "O” Carbon Arc Lamp
Name_
Address.
l''orm 1601
Printed in U.S.A.
2323-2345 Wabansia Avenue
No Postage Stamp Necessary If Mailed In tho United States
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
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